Practical Zoocriticism and the Wild
Animal Story
23
CHAPTER TWO
Knowing Other Animals: Nonhumans
in Twentieth-Century Canadian
Literature
33
Canadians and Animals
33
Canadian and Animal Victims
38
Knowing Other Animals
43
Knowing and Not-Knowing Animals
54
CHAPTER THREE
Practical Zoocriticism:
Contextualizing the Wild Animal Story
63
Critical Responses
63
Literature
78
Advocacy
83
Science
89
CHAPTER FOUR
Wild Animals and Nature Fakers
100
Literature
100
Advocacy
111
Science
122
The Nature Fakers Controversy
137
CHAPTER FIVE
Realistic Representations: Roderick
Haig-
Brown’s
Return to the River
,
Fred Bodsworth’s
Last of the Curlews
,
and
R.D. Lawrence’s
The White Puma
146
Introduction
146
Return to the River
147
Last of the Curlews
161
The White Puma
174
CHAPTER SIX
Speculative Representations:
Frederick Philip Grove’s
Consider Her
Ways
,
Barbara Gowdy’s
The White
Bone
, and
Alison Baird’s
White as the
Waves
195
Introduction
195
Consider Her Ways
196
The White Bone
212
White as the Waves
229
CHAPTER SEVEN
Conclusion
247
The Wild Animal’s Story
247
Practising Zoocriticism
249
Reciprocal Communication and Practical
Zoocentrism
257
APPENDIX
262
GLOSSARY
266
BIBLIOGRAPHY
269
Allmark-Kent 6
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
In this collection, see how often his name appears. See how often
scholars defer to his authority. See how often they attack his credibility.
See how many authors claim him as a seminal influence. See into how
many languages his work has been translated. See all of this and more
and recognize, in the flawed work of Ernest Thompson Seton (an
immigrant to Canada with no formal education beyond art school), ideas
that simply will not go away”
(John Wadland, review of
Other Selves
262).
“Ideas That Simply Will Not Go Away”: The Legacy of the Wild Animal
Story
The late nineteenth-century wild animal stories of Ernest Thompson
Seton and Charles G.D. Roberts hold a much debated position in Canadian
literature and, more recently, at the heart of Canadian literary animal studies.
These stories have been described as “distinctively Canadian” (Atwood 73)
and
have shaped much subsequent Canadian fiction about animals. Yet the eminent
Canadian critic, James Polk, famously described them as an “outdated,
scarcely respecta
ble branch of our literature” (51) and they continue to be
marginalized as something of a national embarrassment.
1
These short stories
about wild animals also triggered a long and well-publicized dispute, known as
the Nature Fakers controversy, which began with a disparaging article by the
American naturalist John Burroughs (published in 1903) and ended when
President Theodore Roosevelt wrote his own condemnation of the stories in
1907. How could short stories about the lives of wild animals prove so divisive?
How did these two Canadian authors attract such heavy criticism, and why has
the reputation of their work improved so little?
1
Margaret Atwood,
Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature
(1972).
James Polk, “Lives of the Hunted,”
Canadian Literature
, issue 53 (1972).
Allmark-Kent 7
Although these questions have stimulated some debate, I contend that
no sufficiently comprehensive explanations have been produced. It is my
opinion that a full understanding of both the stories and the controversy requires
a far more detailed investigation into their relevant contexts than has been
completed in the field, so far. In this thesis, I take the position that the negative
perception and reception of the wild animal story can be explained through
intersecting discourses surrounding the relationship between Canadians and
animals, the anxiety of anthropomorphism, the scientific study of animal minds,
and the division between science and literature. Likewise, I suggest that the
continued marginalization of this topic is the product of both anthropocentric
stigma against concern for animals and disciplinary trends that are shaping the
emergence of literary animal studies (which I discuss in the following section of
this chapter).
It is my belief, then, that Seton and Roberts are responsible for a literary
innovation
, rather than a literary embarrassment. Using an original analytical
framework that I have developed, called
practical zoocriticism
, it is my aim to re-
examine, re-contextualize, and re-evaluate both the wild animal story and
Nature Fakers controversy. In the 1880s, Seton and Roberts began
experimenting with ‘realistic’ forms of nonhuman literary representation. Their
narratives prioritized the lives and experiences of wild animals, and were
generally based on a combination of natural history and individual observation.
Seton gained his knowledge first-hand, while Roberts collated the anecdotes of
other witnesses. As such, the wild animal story is a hybrid blend of science and
storytelling, in which the boundaries between ‘fact’ and ‘fiction’ are often blurred.
This became the central point of the controversy. The stories were deemed to
be both inaccurate and anthropomorphic. Seton and Roberts were condemned
Allmark-Kent 8
as ‘nature fakers.’ In this thesis, I contend that the dispute was driven by
specific contextual factors, rather than any inherent fault in Seton
’s and Roberts’
writing. In particular, I will observe the impact of the late nineteenth-century
professionalization of the sciences and its consequences for the study of natural
history and animal psychology. Using the practical zoocriticism framework I
develop through this work, I will also offer new evidence of the contemporary
influences shaping Seton
’s and Roberts’ literary innovation. This will include:
the increased public interest in the minds and inner lives of animals, which
developed from the 1860s onwards; the emergence and steady momentum of
animal welfare and wildlife conservation movements in the United Kingdom and
United States; the absence of any such coherent animal advocacy in Canada;
the mid-nineteenth century anthropocentric use of animals in Canadian
literature, in which they appeared not as individuals, but as objects of utility.
Through this method of re-contextualization, I will demonstrate that Seton and
Roberts had actually produced a new style of nonhuman literary representation
and a unique form of Canadian literature.
In a review of the first edited collection of Canadian literary animal studies
essays published so far,
Other Selves: Animals in the Canadian Literary
Imagination
(2007), John Wadland takes note of the ubiquitous presence of
Seton and his work. Seton’s name is mentioned in many different essays, in all
three sections of the book, and in “numerous conflicting guises” (259).
Moreover, Wadland declares that the wild animal story, which he sees as
“primarily Seton’s creation,” is “ultimately responsible for launching Canada’s
version of ecocriticism” (262). If the wild animal story is so intrinsic to the study
of animals in Canadian literature, why has it not yielded any sustained, book-
Allmark-Kent 9
length analysis? The closest is the work of Ralph H. Lutts, yet his monograph,
The Nature Fakers: Wildlife, Science & Sentiment
(1990), is more concerned
with describing the events of the controversy than providing any critical
analysis. His book
The Wild Animal Story
(1998) is an edited collection of wild
animal stories, articles from the subsequent debate, and more recent critical
essays. There is minimal interpretation from Lutts himself. Moreover, his
definition of the wild animal story extends beyond the work of Seton and
Roberts to incorporate the American writers William J. Long, Jack London, John
Muir, and Rachel Carson
. In Lutts’ hands, the Canadian writers of this
“distinctively Canadian” (Atwood 73)
genre are actually outnumbered by
Americans.
Here, then, we encounter one of the fundamental problems: there is still
no consensus on the definition of the wild animal story, what it should be called,
or who created it. It is my contention in this thesis that the wild animal story is a
highly specific form of animal writing, co-created by Ernest Thompson Seton
and Charles G.D. Roberts, in response to the changing perception and
treatment of animals in the second half of the nineteenth century. One of the
functions of this thesis will be to provide the first full definition and set of
identifying characteristics for the wild animal story. In order to assess the lasting
impact of Seton
’s and Roberts’ innovation on Canadian literature, I will use this
definition to trace the wild animal story’s core characteristics across six
twentieth-century novels by Canadian authors.
In the early twentieth-century, immediately following the Nature Fakers
controversy, the wild animal story went into decline. I propose that we can see
its re-emergence, and post-Nature Fakers adaptation, in Roderick Haig-
Brown’s
Return to the River: A Story of the Chinook Run
(1941); Frederick Philip Grove’s
Allmark-Kent 10
Consider Her Ways
(1947); Fred Bodsworth’s
Last of the Curlews
(1956); R.D.
Lawrence’s
The White Puma
(1990); Barbara Gowdy’s
The White Bone
(1998);
and Alison Baird’s
White as the Waves
(1999). Whilst the chronology of these
texts might seem unusual, this is due to the fact that such narratives are
remarkably rare. Many authors have written in opposition to Seton
’s and
Roberts’ style, but only a few have replicated it. I believe that this is due, in part,
to the stigma attached to the genre after the Nature Fakers controversy. Indeed,
these six texts are divided between what I have designated ‘realistic’ and
‘speculative’ forms of wild animal story. Again, I attribute this separation to the
issues raised during the controversy; most importantly, the question o
f ‘realistic’
animal representation. It must be noted, however, that extremely little
scholarship has been produced about these texts
—for some of them, my work
is the
first
and
only
—and, at best, there are often just mere paragraphs in which
any
scholar has interpreted them through the lens of the wild animal story.
Therefore, using a survey of
other
twentieth-century Canadian texts in Chapter
Two, I will attempt to demonstrate the highly distinctive nature of the genre,
which I see as a divergence from dominant methods of animal representation.
From this wider survey of Canadian literature, I have identified three
distinct modes of relating to animals. The first is the ‘
fantasy
of knowing’ the
animal, in which the author imagines both the lives and the experiences of
nonhuman animals, and attempts to write from an animal-centric perspective as
much as possible. I argue that the work of Seton, Roberts, and the six
twentieth-century authors belongs to this category, and that the differences
between the ‘realistic’ and ‘speculative’ styles relate to the ways in which they
negotiate the question of ‘knowing’ the animal. The second, the ‘
failure
of
knowing’ the animal, describes narratives of human and animal interaction in
Allmark-Kent 11
which there is always an inability to understand or to communicate with the
nonhuman animal; human efforts to bond with an animal, and their eventual
failure, are often the focus of the plot. The third mode is the ‘
acceptance
of not-
knowing’ the animal, and this refers to narratives founded on the premise that
the nature of ‘the animal’ can never be known. In fact, distinctions between
humans, animals, and supernatural beings are often blurred, challenging the
rigidity of scientific classifications and exposing the arrogance of any human
perspective that claims to ‘know’ the animal. Based on my investigation, I have
found that the majority of twentieth-century Canadian literature featuring
nonhuman animals falls into the latter two categories. Moreover, I have
observed that it is with these two styles of animal representation that literary
animal studies seems to be most concerned at present.
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