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Questioning
An assortment of questioning tactics exists to promote CT. Depending on how a question is asked; the student may use various CT skills such as interpretation, analysis, and recognition of assumptions to form a conclusion. Mills suggested that the thoughtful use of questions may be the quintessential activity of an effective teacher. Questions are only as good as the thought put into them and should go beyond knowledge level recall.
Researchers have found that often clinical teachers asked significantly more lower-level cognitive questions than higher-level questions. Questions should be designed to promote evaluation and synthesis of facts and concepts. Asking a student to evaluate when proprioception exercises should be included in a rehabilitation program is more challenging than asking a student to define proprioception. Higher-level thinking questions should start or end with words or phrases such as, ‘‘explain,’’ ‘‘compare,’’ ‘‘why,’’ ‘‘which is a solution to the problem,’’ ‘‘what is the best and why,’’ and ‘‘do you agree or disagree with this statement?’’ For example, a student could be asked to compare the use of parachlorophenylalanine versus serotonin for control of post- treatment soreness. The Bloom Taxonomy is a hierarchy of thinking skills that ranges from simple skills, such as knowledge, to complex thinking, such as evaluation. Depending on the initial words used in the question, students can be challenged at different levels of cognition.
Another type of questioning technique is Socratic questioning. Socratic questioning is defined as a type of questioning that deeply probes or explores the meaning, justification, or logical strength of a claim, position, or line of reasoning.
Questions are asked that investigate assumptions, viewpoints, consequences, and evidence. Questioning methods, such as calling on students who do not have their hands up, can enhance learning by engaging students to think. The Socratic method focuses on clarification. A student’s answer to a question can be followed by asking a fellow student to summarize the previous answer. Summarizing the information allows the student to demonstrate whether he or she was listening, had digested the information, and understood it enough to put it into his or her own words. Avoiding questions with one set answer allows for different viewpoints and encourages students to compare problems and approaches. Asking students to explain how the high school and the collegiate or university field experiences are similar and different is an example. There is no right or wrong answer because the answers depend upon the individual student’s experiences. Regardless of the answer, the student must think critically about the topic to forma conclusion of how the field experiences are different and similar. In addition to using these questioning techniques, it is equally important to orient the students to this type of classroom interaction. Mills suggested that provocative questions should be brief and contain only one or two issues at a time for class reflection. It is also important to provide deliberate silence, or ‘‘wait’’ time, for students upon asking questions. Waiting at least 5 seconds allows the students to think and encourages thought. Elliot argued that waiting even as long as 10 seconds allows the students’ time to think about possibilities. If a thought question is asked, time must be given for the students to think about the answer.