1. Why study History?

11)The Sources: Primary and Secondary
The problem of weighing evidence is never an easy one, but the difficulty can be eased by an appreciation of the various types of sources historians rely upon in their work.A primary source (also called an original source) is a piece of evidence written or Created during the period under investigation. Primary sources are the records of contemporaries who participated in, witnessed, or commented on the events you are studying. They are the documents and artifacts—letters, reports, diaries, Government records, parish registers, newspapers, business ledgers, photographs, Films, works of art, buildings, and a host of others—that make the writing and study of history possible. A note of caution: even though an eyewitness or participant Writes down memories many years after the event, the commentary is still a primary Source. In sum, a primary source is to the historian what a mountain is to the geologist: the surviving record of events that took place a long time ago.A secondary source is an account of the period in question written after the events Have taken place. Often based on primary sources, secondary sources are the books, Articles, essays, and lectures through which we learn most of the history we know. Historians take the raw data found in primary sources and transform it into the Written histories that attempt to explain how and why things happened as they did.The distinction between primary and secondary sources is not always as clear as The above definitions imply. For instance, newspapers are definitely primary sources For the periods in which they were published. But parts of newspapers—especially News stories and editorials—also share many characteristics with secondary sources. Very often journalists are not eyewitnesses to the events they describe in their Accounts. Like historians, journalists must interrogate witnesses—in this case Directly—and read pertinent documents in order to construct the story, the “history,” That appears in the paper.Another problematic source is the personal memoir or autobiography written by A politician, military officer, or movie star. Such memoirs often straddle the line that Separates primary from secondary sources. While memoirs and autobiographies are First-person narrations of events, their authors rarely rely totally on their memories, As the term “memoir” implies. Authors often “recollect” the events of their public Life with the help of a variety of documents, or with previously published accounts of friends and colleagues. In this case the memoir writer is functioning like any other historian, so the memoir must be considered, at least in part, a secondary source.Also confusing is the fact that many sources can be categorized either as primary or secondary depending on the subject being studied. An example is Charles Beard’s famous book, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution, published in 1913. Beard’s controversial thesis was that the delegates to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia designed the Constitution to protect their own Personal economic interests. For scholars studying the origins of the Constitution, Beard’s book is a secondary source, and its central thesis has been long debated. However, the book would be a primary source for anyone studying the ideas of Charles Beard himself. That is, if Charles Beard and his ideas were the subject of the study Economic Interpretation of the Constitution would be a primary source; if the origins of the Constitution were the subject, Beard’s book would be a secondary source.Finally, many primary sources have been published in book form. In spite of their resemblance in form to secondary sources, these materials remain primary. Remember, the basic question to ask is: When did the materials originateә Not: When were they published or reprintedә The Declaration of Independence printed In the back of a textbook is still a primary source for the revolutionary period of American history, even though the textbook itself is a secondary source.

11) mәnbәlәr: ilkin vә ikincil

Subutlarin olculmәsi problemi hec vaxt asan olmur, lakin bu cәtinlik tarixcilәrin islәrindә etibar etdiklәri muxtәlif mәnbәlәri basa dusmәklә asanlasdirila bilәr.Ilkin mәnbә (hәmcinin ilkin mәnbә adlanir) tәdqiq olunan dovr әrzindә yazilmis vә ya yaradilmis subutdur. Әsas mәnbәlәr, oyrәndiyiniz hadisәlәrә qatIlan, sahid olan vә ya sәrh verәn muasirlәrin qeydlәridir. Bunlar tarixin yazIlmasInI vә oyrәnilmәsini mumkun edәn sәnәdlәr vә әsәrlәr — mәktublar, hesabatlar, gundәliklәr, hokumәt hesabatlarI, kilsә kitablarI, Qәzetlәr, muәssisә kitablarI, fotosәkillәr, filmlәr, sәnәt әsәrlәri, binalar vә daha cox seydir. XәbәrdarlIq: bir sahid vә ya istirakcI hadisәdәn illәr sonra xatirәlәrini yazsa da, sәrh hәlә dә әsas mәnbәyidir. Umumiyyәtlә, tarixci ucun әsas mәnbә dagin geoloq ucun oldugu kimidir: coxdan bas verәn hadisәlәrin sag qalan qeydlәri.Ikinci dәrәcәli mәnbә, hadisәlәrin bas vermәsindәn sonra yazilmis dovr hesabatidir. Tez - tez ilkin mәnbәlәrә әsaslanan ikincil mәnbәlәr, bildiyimiz tarixin cox hissәsini oyrәnәcәyimiz kitablar, mәqalәlәr, ocerklәr vә muhazirәlәrdir. Tarixcilәr ilkin mәnbәlәrdә tapilan xam mәlumatlari goturur vә hәr seyin necә vә niyә bas verdiyini izah etmәyә calisan yazili hekayәlәrә cevirirlәr.Birincil vә ikincil mәnbәlәr arasindaki fәrq hәmisә yuxaridaki tәriflәrdә nәzәrdә tutuldugu qәdәr aydin deyil. Mәsәlәn, Qәzetlәr, subhәsiz ki, nәsr olunduqlari dovrlәr ucun әsas mәnbәlәrdir. Ancaq qәzetlәrin ayri — ayri hissәlәri — xususәn dә xәbәr sujetlәri vә redaksiyalar-ikinci dәrәcәli mәnbәlәrlә bir cox xususiyyәtlәri bolusurlәr. Cox vaxt jurnalistlәr hesabatlarinda tәsvir etdiklәri hadisәlәrin sahidi olmurlar. Tarixcilәr kimi, jurnalistlәr dә sahidlәri dindirmәli - bu halda birbasa-vә qәzetdә gorunәn bir hekayә, "arxa plan" qurmaq ucun muvafiq sәnәdlәri oxumalidirlar.Digәr problemli mәnbәlәr siyasәtci, hәrbi zabit vә ya film ulduzu tәrәfindәn yazilmis sәxsi xatirәlәr vә ya tәrcumeyi-hallardәr. Bu cur xatirәlәr tez-tez birincil mәnbәlәri ikincil mәnbәlәrdәn ayiran xәtti kecir. Xatirәlәr vә tәrcumeyi-hallar hadisәlәrin birinci sәxs povestlәri olsa da, muәlliflәri nadir hallarda "xatirәlәr"ifadәsinin nәzәrdә tutdugu kimi xatirәlәrinә tamamilә etibar edirlәr. Muәlliflәr tez-tez sosial hәyatindaki hadisәlәri muxtәlif sәnәdlәr vә ya dostlarinin vә hәmkarlarinin әvvәllәr dәrc olunmus hekayәlәri ilә "xatirlayirlar". Bu vәziyyәtdә xatirә muәllifi hәr hansi digәr tarixci kimi davranir, buna gorә dә xatirә әn azi qismәn ikinci dәrәcәli mәnbә kimi qәbul edilmәlidir.Tәdqiq olunan movzuya gorә bir cox mәnbәnin ya birincil, ya da ikincil olaraq tәsnif edilә bilmәsi dә qarisiqdir. Buna misal olaraq Charles Beard-in 1913-cu ildә nәsr olunan mәshur "Konstitusiyanin iqtisadi sәrhi" kitabidir. Beard ' in mubahisәli tezisi, Filadelfiyadaki Konstitusiya qurultayinin numayәndәlәrinin Sәxsi iqtisadi maraqlarini qorumaq ucun bir konstitusiya hazirlamasi idi. Konstitusiyanin mәnsәyini arasdiran elm adamlari ucun Beard kitabi ikinci dәrәcәli bir qaynaqdir vә Mәrkәzi tezisi uzun muddәt muzakirә edilmisdir. Bununla birlikdә, bu kitab Charles Beard-in fikirlәrini oyrәnәn hәr kәs ucun әsas mәnbә olardi. Yәni Charles Beard vә fikirlәri arasdirma movzusu olsaydi, Konstitusiyanin iqtisadi tәfsiri әsas mәnbә olardi; Konstitusiyanin mәnsәyi haqqinda olsaydi, Beard kitabi ikinci dәrәcәli mәnbә olardi. Nәhayәt, bir cox orijinal mәnbәlәr kitab sәklindә nәsr olundu. Forma baxәmәndan ikincil mәnbәlәrlә oxsarlәqlarәna baxmayaraq, bu materiallar әsas olaraq qalir. Unutmayin ki, verilәcәk әsas sual budur: materiallar nә vaxt ortaya cixdi? Xeyr: nә vaxt nәsr olundu vә ya yenidәn nәsr olundu? Dәrsliyin arxasшnda cap olunan mustәqillik bәyannamәsi hәlә dә Amerika tarixinin inqilabi dovru ucun әsas mәnbәdir, baxmayaraq ki, dәrsliyin ozu ikinci dәrәcәli mәnbәdir.