Miliary TB
This is a complication of primary TB in young children. Miliary TB may manifest
subacutely with low-grade fever, malaise, weight loss, and fatigue. A rapid onset of
fever and associated symptoms may also be observed. History of cough and
respiratory distress may be obtained.
Physical examination findings include lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, and
systemic signs including fever. Respiratory signs may evolve to include tachypnea,
cyanosis, and respiratory distress. Other signs, which are subtle and should be
carefully sought in the physical examination, include papular, necrotic, or purpuric
lesions on the skin or choroidal tubercles in the retina.
Bone or joint TB
Skeletal TB may present acutely or subacutely. Vertebral disease may go
unrecognized for months to years because of its indolent nature. Common sites
involved include the large weightbearing bones or joints, including the vertebrae
(50%), hip (15%), and knee (15%).
Destruction of the bones with deformity is a late sign of TB. Manifestations may
include angulation of the spine (gibbus deformity) and/or Pott disease (severe
kyphosis with destruction of the vertebral bodies). Cervical spine involvement may
result in atlantoaxial subluxation, which may lead to paraplegia or quadriplegia.
Diagnostic Overview
Making the diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in children is extremely challenging
because of the difficulty in isolating M tuberculosis. Definitive TB diagnosis depends
on isolation of the organism from secretions or biopsy specimens. Despite
innovations in rapid diagnosis, many of the classic diagnostic tools remain useful
and continue to be used in the evaluation of patients with TB.
To make a diagnosis of congenital TB, the infant should have proven TB lesions and
at least one of the following:
Skin lesions during the first week of life, including papular lesions or petechiae
Documentation of TB infection of the placenta or the maternal genital tract
Presence of a primary complex in the liver
Exclusion of the possibility of postnatal transmission
Differentials
The following conditions should also be considered in cases of suspected TB:
Actinomycosis
Aspergillosis
Bronchiectasis
Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia
Brucellosis
Chronic Granulomatous Disease
Coccidioidomycosis
Failure to Thrive
Fever Without a Focus
Histoplasmosis
Legionella Infection
Meningitis, Aseptic
Meningitis, Bacterial
Nocardiosis
Pleural Effusion
Pneumonia
Tuberculin Skin Test
The tuberculin skin test (TST) is a widely used diagnostic test for evaluation of
patients who have symptoms of tuberculosis (TB) or in whom infection with M
tuberculosis is suspected. The sensitivity and the specificity of the TST is
approximately 90%. Interferon gamma release assays (IGRA) are now replacing the
TST as the preferred test for screening and testing for tuberculosis.
AAP guidelines for pediatric testing
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), immediate skin testing is
indicated for the following children
[11]
:
Those who have been in contact with persons with active or suspected TB
Immigrants from TB-endemic countries (eg, Asia, Middle East, Africa, Latin
America) or children with travel histories to these countries
Those who have radiographic or clinical findings suggestive of TB
An annual TST is indicated for the following children
[11]
:
Children who are infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or those
living in a household with persons infected with HIV
Incarcerated adolescents
Testing at 2-year to 3-year intervals is indicated if the child has been exposed to
high-risk individuals including those who are homeless, institutionalized adults who
are infected with HIV, users of illicit drugs, residents of nursing homes, and
incarcerated adolescents or adults.
[11]
Testing when children are aged 4-6 years and 11-16 years is indicated for the
following children
[11]
:
Children without risk factors residing in high-prevalence areas
Children whose parents emigrated from regions of the world with a high
prevalence of TB or who have continued potential exposure by travel to the
endemic areas and/or household contact
Performing an initial TST before the initiation of immunosuppressive therapy is
recommended in any patient.
[11]
Administration of TST
The recommended TST is the Mantoux test. The dosage of 0.1 mL or 5 tuberculin
units [TU] of purified protein derivative (PPD) should be injected intradermally into
the volar aspect of the forearm using a 27-gauge needle. A detergent called Tween
80 to prevent loss of efficacy on contact and adsorption by glass stabilizes the PPD.
A wheal should be raised and should measure approximately 6-10 mm in diameter.
Skilled personnel should always read the test 48-72 hours after administration.
Measure the amount of induration and not erythema. This should be measured
transverse to the long axis of the forearm.
Multiple puncture tests (eg, tine test, Heaf test) lack sensitivity and specificity and
hence are not recommended.
Interpretation of TST results
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the AAP provided
recommendations regarding the size of the induration created by the TST that is
considered a positive result and indicative of disease.
[11, 12]
The TST is interpreted on
the basis of 3 "cut points": 5 mm, 10 mm, and 15 mm.
Induration of 5 mm or more is considered a positive TST result in the following
children
[11, 12]
:
Children having close contact with known or suspected contagious cases of
the disease, including those with household contacts with active TB whose
treatment cannot be verified before exposure
Children with immunosuppressive conditions (eg, HIV) or children who are on
immunosuppressive medications
Children who have an abnormal chest radiograph finding consistent with
active TB, previously active TB, or clinical evidence of the disease
Induration of 10 mm or more is considered a positive TST result in the following
children
[11, 12]
:
Children who are at a higher risk of dissemination of TB disease, including
those younger than 5 years or those who are immunosuppressed because of
conditions such as lymphoma, Hodgkin disease, diabetes mellitus, and malnutrition
Children with increased exposure to the disease, including those who are
exposed to adults in high-risk categories (eg, homeless, HIV infected, users of illicit
drugs, residents of nursing homes, incarcerated or institutionalized persons); those
who were born in or whose parents were born in high-prevalence areas of the
world; and those with travel histories to high-prevalence areas of the world
Induration of 15 mm or more is considered a positive TST result in children aged 5
years or older without any risk factors for the disease.
[11, 12]
False-positive and false-negative results
False-positive reactions and false-negative results can have various causes. False-
positive reactions are often attributed to asymptomatic infection by environmental
non-TB mycobacteria (due to cross-reactivity).
False-negative results may be due to vaccination with live-attenuated virus, anergy,
immunosuppression, immune deficiency, or malnutrition. Other factors that may
cause a false-negative result include improper administration (eg, subcutaneous
injection, injection of too little antigen), improper storage, and contamination. PPD
has been recognized to have an initial false-negative rate of 29%.
Previous BCG vaccination
Some important points regarding administering the TST to previous recipients of the
bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) are briefly discussed.
Immunization with BCG is not a contraindication to the TST. BCG vaccination is
used in many parts of the world, especially in developing countries.
Differentiating tuberculin reactions caused by vaccination with BCG versus reactions
caused by infection with M tuberculosis is difficult. History of contact with a person
with contagious TB or emigration from a country with a high prevalence of TB
suggests that the positive results are due to infection with M tuberculosis.However,
multiple BCG vaccinations may increase the likelihood that the positive TST result is
due to the BCG vaccination. The positive reactivity caused by BCG vaccination
generally wanes with the passage of time. With the administration of TST, this
positive tuberculin reactivity may be boosted.
A previous BCG vaccination does not affect interpretation of a TST result for a
person who is symptomatic or in whom TB is strongly suspected.
Specimen Collection for Analysis
The initial step in detection and isolation of the mycobacterium is to obtain
appropriate specimens for bacteriologic examination. Examination of sputum, gastric
lavage, bronchoalveolar lavage, lung tissue, lymph node tissue, bone marrow, blood,
liver, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), urine, and stool may be useful, depending on the
location of the disease.
Decontamination of other microorganisms in the specimens obtained may be
performed by the addition of sodium hydroxide, usually in combination with N -
acetyl- L -cysteine. Other body fluids (eg, CSF, pleural fluid, peritoneal fluid) can also
be centrifuged; the sediment can be stained and evaluated for presence of acid-fast
bacilli (AFB). CSF smear results are positive in fewer than 10% of patients in some
series. Enhancement of the yield may be possible by staining any clot that may have
formed in standing CSF specimens, as well as using the sediment of a centrifuged
specimen. Increased yield may also be obtained from cisternal or ventricular fluid.
Sputum specimens
Sputum specimens may be used in older children, but not in very young children (<
6 y), who usually do not have a cough deep enough to produce sputum for analysis.
In those younger than 6 years, gastric aspirates are used.
Nasopharyngeal secretions and saliva are not acceptable. In older children,
bronchial secretions may be obtained by the stimulation of cough by an aerosol
solution of propylene glycol in 10% sodium chloride (see Bronchial secretions).
Gastric aspirates
Gastric aspirates are used in lieu of sputum in children younger than 6 years.
Using the correct technique for obtaining the gastric lavage is important because of
the scarcity of the organisms in children compared with adults. An early morning
sample should be obtained before the child has had a chance to eat or ambulate,
because these activities dilute the bronchial secretions accumulated during the
night.
Initially, the stomach contents should be aspirated, and then a small amount of
sterile water is injected through the orogastric tube. This aspirate should also be
added to the specimen.
Because gastric acidity is poorly tolerated by the tubercle bacilli, neutralization of the
specimen should be performed immediately with 10% sodium carbonate or 40%
anhydrous sodium phosphate. Even with careful attention to detail and meticulous
technique, the tubercle bacilli can be detected in only 70% of infants and in 30-40%
of children with disease.
Bronchial secretions
Bronchoalveolar lavage may be used in older children (6 y or older). Bronchial
secretions may be obtained by the stimulation of cough by an aerosol solution of
propylene glycol in 10% sodium chloride. This technique may also be used to
provide bronchial secretions for detection of tubercle bacilli.
Urine specimens
Obtain overnight urine specimens in the early morning. Send immediately for
analysis, because the tubercle bacilli poorly tolerate the acidic pH of urine.
AFB Staining
Because M tuberculosis is an acid-fast bacilli (AFB), AFB staining provides
preliminary confirmation of the diagnosis. Conventional methods include the Ziehl-
Neelsen staining method. The Kinyoun stain is modified to make heating
unnecessary. Fluorochrome stains, such as auramine and rhodamine, are variations
of the traditional stains. The major advantage of these methods is that slides can be
screened faster, because the acid-fast material stands out against the dark,
nonfluorescent background. However, fluorochrome-positive smears must be
confirmed by Ziehl-Neelsen staining.
Staining can also give a quantitative assessment of the number of bacilli being
excreted (eg, 1+, 2+, 3+). This can be of clinical and epidemiologic importance in
estimating the infectiousness of the patient and in determining the discontinuation of
respiratory isolation. However, for reliably producing a positive result, smears require
approximately 10,000 organisms/mL. Therefore, in early stages of the disease or in
children in whom the bacilli in the respiratory secretions are sparse, the results may
be negative. A single organism on a slide is highly suggestive and warrants further
investigation.
A significant drawback of AFB smears is that they cannot be used to differentiate M
tuberculosis from other acid-fast organisms such as other mycobacterial organisms
or Nocardia species.
Mycobacterium Cultures
Culture of mycobacterium is the definitive method to detect bacilli. It is also more
sensitive than examination of the smear. Approximately 10 acid-fast bacilli (AFB) per
millimeter of a digested concentrated specimen are sufficient to detect the
organisms by culture.
Another advantage of culture is that it allows specific species identification and
testing for recognition of drug susceptibility patterns. However, because M
tuberculosis is a slow-growing organism, a period of 6-8 weeks is required for
colonies to appear on conventional culture media.
Conventional growth techniques
Conventional solid media include the Löwenstein-Jensen medium, which is an egg-
based medium, and the Middlebrook 7H10 and the 7H11 media, which are agar-
based media. Liquid media (eg, Dubos oleic-albumin media) are also available, and
they require incubation in 5-10% carbon dioxide for 3-8 weeks. These media usually
have antibacterial antibiotics, which are slightly inhibitory for tubercle bacilli.
Rapid growth techniques
Because mycobacteria require 6-8 weeks for isolation from conventional media,
automated radiometric culture methods (eg, BACTEC) are increasingly used for the
rapid growth of mycobacteria. The methodology uses a liquid Middlebrook 7H12
medium that contains radiometric palmitic acid labeled with radioactive carbon-14
(
14
C). Several antimicrobial agents are added to this medium to prevent the growth
of nonmycobacterial contaminants. Production of
14
CO
2
by the metabolizing
organisms provides a growth index for the mycobacteria. Growth is generally
detected within 9-16 days.
Another rapid method for isolation of mycobacteria is SEPTICHEK. This
nonradiometric approach has a biphasic broth-based system that decreases the
mean recovery time versus conventional methods.
Mycobacterial growth indicator tubes (MGITs), which presently are used as a
research tool, have round-bottom tubes with oxygen-sensitive sensors at the bottom.
MGITs indicate microbial growth and provide a quantitative index of M
tuberculosis growth.
Species Identification
M tuberculosis can be reliably differentiated from other species on the basis of
culture characteristics, growth parameters, and other empiric tests. M
tuberculosisproduces heat-sensitive catalase, reduces nitrates, produces niacin, and
grows slowly. Serpentine cording is demonstrated on smears prepared from the
BACTEC system.
Addition of p -nitro-acetyl-amino-hydroxy-propiophenone (NAP) inhibits the growth
of M tuberculosis complex (including M bovis and M africanum) but does not inhibit
growth of other mycobacteria. This provides the basis for the NAP differentiation
test.
Chromatographic analysis of mycobacterial cell wall lipids can provide further
speciation. The most useful approaches include gas-liquid chromatography and
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The unique mycolic acid pattern
associated with the species can be detected by the chromatographic separation of
the ester.
A significant drawback of these chromatographic methods is the requirement of
bacterial colonies grown in conventional solid media, a process that takes at least 3
weeks. However, the recent combination of HPLC with fluorescence detection has
made the method more sensitive; thus, BACTEC broth culture can be used instead
of conventional solid media. This may make the method comparable to the NAP and
AccuProbe tests (see Nucleic Acid Probes). The expense of the initial equipment
limits the availability of HPLC.
Nucleic Acid Probes
Because biochemical methods are time-consuming and laborious, nucleic acid
hybridization using molecular probes has become widely accepted. The basic
principle is the use of a chemiluminescent, ester-labeled, single-strand DNA probe. A
luminometer is used to assess the chemiluminescence.
Commercially available probes, including the AccuProbe technology, help advance
identification of the M tuberculosis complex. Sensitivity and specificity approach
100% when at least 100,000 organisms are present.
Positive test results should be reported as M tuberculosis complex, because the
probe does not reliably differentiate between M tuberculosis and other members of
the complex (eg, M bovis). In addition, final identification to species level is required,
because pyrazinamide should not be included in the treatment regimen if the isolate
is M bovis.
Niacin production, nitrate reduction, pyrazinamidase, and susceptibility to thiophene-
2-carboxylic acid hydrazide can help differentiate between M bovis and M
tuberculosis.
Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests
Nucleic acid amplification techniques (eg, polymerase chain reaction [PCR]) allows
the direct identification of M tuberculosis in clinical specimens, unlike the nucleic
acid probes, which require substantial time for bacterial accumulation in broth
culture.
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved at least 2 tests, the
amplified M tuberculosis direct test and the AMPLICOR M tuberculosis test. The
amplified M tuberculosis direct test is an isothermal transcription-mediated
amplification that targets RNA. The AMPLICLOR test targets the DNA. The most
commonly used target sequence for the detection of M tuberculosis has been the
insertion sequence IS6110.
Although amplification techniques are promising tools for the rapid diagnosis of
tuberculosis (TB), several caveats remain. Contamination of samples by products of
previous amplification and the presence of inhibitors in the sample may lead to false-
positive or false-negative results.
Although the sensitivity and specificity of the nucleic acid techniques in smear-
positive cases exceed 95%, the sensitivity of smear-negative cases varies from 40%
to 70%. Thus, discordance between the acid-fast smear result and the nucleic acid
amplification techniques requires careful clinical appraisal and judgment.
Immunoassays
IFN-gamma plays a critical role in regulating cell-mediated immune responses to M
tuberculosis infection. This resulted in the development of IGRAs to aid clinicians in
diagnosing M tuberculosis infection (latent infection and active infection).
IGRAs detect sensitization to M tuberculosis by measuring IFN-gamma release in
response to antigens that represent M tuberculosis. Available assays include the
QuantiFERON-TB test (QFT), the QuantiFERON-TB Gold test (QFT-G), the
QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube test (QFT-GIT), and the T-SPOT.TB test (T-Spot).
The use of IGRAs in children is subject to the following limitations:
Studies evaluating IGRAs performance in children are scant.
Indeterminate results for children are a potential limitation to implementing
IGRAs into clinical practice. The frequencies of indeterminate IGRA results in
children vary (range, 0–17%) and most are attributable to a low mitogen response
as a result of a lack of immunologic maturity. A study of 761 children by Critselis et
al confirmed that indeterminate results from the QFT-IT assay occur more
frequently among younger children.
[13]
Difficulties in collecting blood for these tests and the need for a relatively large
volume of blood from small children (especially for infants) are also limitations.
Because of the above limitations, a TST is preferred for testing children younger
than 5 years. Regardless, sensitivity of IGRAs in children is expected to be
comparable to TST. Specificity of IGRAs in children is expected to be high. However,
additional studies are needed to evaluate the performance of IGRAs in children.
Situations in which an IGRA is preferred but a TST is acceptable include the
following:
Testing patients who have low rates of returning for TST
Testing persons who have received BCG as a vaccine or for cancer therapy to
increase diagnostic specificity and improve acceptance of treatment for latent
infection
M tuberculosis Drug Susceptibility
Because of the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) organisms, determination of
the drug susceptibility panel of an isolate is important so that appropriate treatment
can be ensured.
Numerous chromosomal mutations are associated with drug resistance. Genotypic
methods now being evaluated to identify these mutations include DNA sequencing,
solid phase hybridization, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-single-strand
combination polymorphism analysis.
Mutations of the catalase peroxidase gene katG, the inhA gene involved in fatty acid
biosynthesis, the ahpc gene, and the oxyR gene have been identified as major
determinants for isoniazid (INH) resistance.
Resistance to rifampin is determined by mutations in the rpoB gene encoding the
beta subunit of the RNA polymerase.
Phenotypic susceptibility assays, which are still under investigation, use
mycobacteriophages to type the mycobacteria grown in the presence of
antituberculous agents.
Rapid molecular detection of TB and drug resistance using an automated molecular
test for M tuberculosis and resistance to rifampin (Xpert MTB/RIF), by PCR assay to
amplify an M tuberculosi– -specific sequence within the rifampin resistance–
determining region has been studied in countries with a high TB burden. Overall, the
findings suggest use of MTB/RIF test in low-resource countries may be feasible to
allow to early diagnosis and treatment. This test can be performed using
nasopharyngeal specimens in settings where induced sputum and culture are not
practical.
[14]
Serology
M tuberculosis increases the levels of antibody titers in the serum. However, there is
no available serodiagnostic test for tuberculosis (TB) that has an adequate
sensitivity and specificity for routine use in diagnosing TB in children.
Management Overview
The American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) have provided standard guidelines for the treatment of
tuberculosis (TB). The ultimate goal of treatment is to achieve sterilization of the TB
lesion in the shortest possible time. The general rule is strict adherence to TB
treatment regimens for a sufficient time period. To prevent the emergence of
resistance, the regimens for the treatment of TB always should consist of multiple
drugs.
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