0.72
0.59,
0.88
139
117 (84)
1.90
1.08,
3.35
≥ 15 mm
1,182
545 (46)
0.56
0.47,
0.66
320
245 (77)
1.15
0.75,
1.75
Sub-total 2,937
1,557 (53)
658
511 (78)
HIV+/FB
0–4 mm
522
325 (62)
Ref
62
48 (77)
Ref
5–9 mm
36
24 (67)
1.20
0.59,
2.47
7
4 (57)
0.37
0.07,
1.86
10–14
mm
267
140 (52)
0.67
0.50,
0.91
61
37 (61)
0.45
0.20,
1.00
≥ 15 mm
483
217 (45)
0.50
0.39,
0.65
130
102 (78)
1.03
0.49,
2.16
Sub-total 1,308
706 (54)
260
191 (73)
HIV-/US
0–4 mm
2,051
1,195 (58)
Ref
1,430
1,232 (86)
Ref
5–9 mm
285
159 (56)
0.89
0.69,
1.14
273
236 (86)
0.99
0.68,
1.44
10–14
mm
2,759
1,504 (55) 0.84
0.74,
0.94
2,137
1,795 (84) 0.78
0.64,
0.95
≥ 15 mm
7,576
3,745 (49) 0.69
0.62,
0.76
5,960
5,027 (84) 0.80
0.68,
0.95
Sub-total 12,671 6,603 (52)
9,800
8,290 (85)
HIV-/FB
0–4 mm
831
468 (56)
Ref
600
482 (80)
Ref
5–9 mm
314
159 (51)
0.78
0.60,
1.02
180
150 (83)
1.23
0.79,
1.91
10–14
mm
2,702
1,338 (50) 0.74
0.63,
0.87
1,790
1,466 (82) 1.10
0.87,
1.39
≥ 15 mm
7,992
3,626 (45) 0.62
0.54,
0.72
4,637
3,754 (81) 1.03
0.83,
1.28
Sub-total 11,839 5,591 (47)
7,207
5,852 (81)
Total
28,755 14,457 (50)
19,925 14,844 (83)
Probability modeled is of sputum AFB smear positivity.
*aOR adjusted odds ratio, 95% CI 95% Confidence Interval.
Note: Numbers in bold represent significant 95% confidence intervals.
Discussion
In this analysis of TB cases in the United States, 15.9% of persons with culture-
confirmed TB had a negative TST result, and clinical presentation of disease differed
by TST result. Overall, persons with a negative TST result were significantly more
likely to have miliary or combined pulmonary and extrapulmonary disease, which is
consistent with reports from smaller cohorts.
[1,16,17]
At the same time, persons with a
positive TST were typically more likely to have cavitary pulmonary disease as
compared to non-cavitary pulmonary disease. A similar relationship has been seen
in a rabbit model of aerosolized TB infection whereby more cavities were present in
rabbits with strong tuberculin reactions.
[18]
Importantly, the associations between TST
result and clinical presentation of disease were substantially impacted by HIV status
and birthplace.
We found that half of persons with non-cavitary pulmonary disease had positive
sputum smear results, and this smear positivity was significantly associated with
having a negative TST. This association between sputum smear result and TST
result was not seen in persons with cavitary pulmonary disease. Our findings
support the notion that there may be several mechanisms for the buildup of sufficient
bacteria to be visualized by smear microscopy, and smear positive disease in the
absence of cavities may be associated with some aspect of immune function that is
assayed by the TST.
[19]
Additionally, several recent studies suggest
that Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) benefits from a more active
immune response and postulate that direct engagement of M. tuberculosis with the
human immune system favors cavity formation thereby increasing the likelihood of
subsequent aerosol transmission.
[20–23]
Taken together with our results, this suggests
a complex interaction between M. tuberculosis and the host immune system that
results in different disease manifestations and potential for transmission.
Our finding that HIV status and birthplace impacted the association between TST
result and clinical presentation of disease is noteworthy. Associations between TST
result and clinical presentation were generally consistent across all strata with the
exception of cavitary pulmonary disease. Persons with HIV and US-born persons
without HIV who had a TST ≥ 15 mm were significantly more likely to have cavitary
pulmonary disease while foreign-born persons without HIV who had a TST ≥ 15 mm
were significantly less likely to have cavitary pulmonary disease.
The basis of these differences according to birthplace is not known; however, US-
and foreign-born persons with TB in the US differ in several notable respects. One
difference in these populations is in the likelihood of previous exposure to M.
tuberculosis complex. Most foreign-born cases of TB in the US are among persons
from countries with high rates of TB and thus potential for repeated exposure in their
country of origin.
[24,25]
Additionally, BCG vaccination as a child is virtually universal
among immigrants to the US from medium and high TB burden countries. Thus,
foreign-born persons who develop TB in the US are substantially more likely to have
had prior exposure to mycobacteria (TB and/or BCG) with resultant sensitization of
their immune system and the potential for pre-existing immune function directed
against mycobacteria. This immune priming may serve to limit more disseminated
forms of TB disease (i.e., miliary and combined pulmonary and extrapulmonary), in a
manner potentially analogous to BCG vaccination where vaccinated children have
decreased incidence of disseminated disease.
Another potential difference between US- and foreign-born persons may be the
timing of disease relative to infection. Disease among US-born persons is more
often associated with recent transmission whereas TB among foreign-born persons
in the US is thought to be primarily due to reactivation of latent TB.
[24,26,27]
Hence,
cavitation may represent a vigorous, but locally damaging immune response more
commonly associated with recent infection. The lower risk of cavitation seen among
foreign-born persons without HIV who had a positive TST may represent a "survivor
effect" related to different disease manifestations in the setting of reactivation
disease. It is also possible that US- and foreign-born persons have differences in
their likelihood of undergoing TB screening or different social or nutritional factors
that impact both their immune response and their presentation of disease.
[28,29]
This analysis utilized cross-sectional data and so we could not determine the relative
timing of clinical disease presentation and TST result. Prospective studies are
needed to determine whether the immune response represented by the TST is a
driver of clinical disease presentation or a consequence of infection where, for
example, greater presence of mycobacteria may trigger a larger TST response.
Although numerous reviews cite disseminated infection as a potential cause of a
negative TST in the setting of active disease, it is also possible that disseminated
infection occurs as a result of a diminished or impaired host immune response as
assayed by the TST.
[1,3,30]
By limiting our analysis to persons with a documented TST result, we excluded
nearly half of the TB cases reported in the United States during the study period.
Statistically significant differences were found between the included and excluded
populations for all sociodemographic and clinical variables. Therefore, there is a
possibility that the population studied was not representative of the entire US
surveillance cohort. Nevertheless, we were still able to include a very large cohort of
persons with culture-confirmed TB. We also limited our analysis to persons with a
known HIV status because we found that the relationship between TST result and
clinical presentation varied by HIV status. Similarly, data from California, which
accounts for approximately 20% of TB cases in the United States, were excluded
because HIV results were not routinely reported to CDC. However, results of a
sensitivity analysis including cases reported from California were not appreciably
different (data not shown).
Conclusions
Overall, this analysis provides recent population-level data about the relationship
between TST result, a marker of host immune response, and the clinical
presentation of active TB disease. Our findings suggest that the significance of the
TST result may extend beyond its traditional role as a marker of infection and may
be relevant to the pathophysiology and presentation of active disease, even among
persons without overt immune dysfunction. The differences in site of disease by TST
result may indicate that the TST could be a useful adjunct for identifying patients
with different underlying immune system susceptibility to and interaction with M.
tuberculosis. A better understanding of these differences may provide insight into
differential responses to vaccine candidates or TB treatment. Our finding that
persons with a positive TST result were less likely to have disseminated disease
may parallel the effect of BCG immunization which usually results in transient TST
positivity and decreased risk of disseminated disease in children.
[31]
Future vaccine
trials may want to consider including both TST result and clinical presentation of TB
disease in their study outcomes since immunization may impact the likelihood of
cavity formation or of disseminated disease, both of which would have implications
for TB transmission and mortality. Broader incorporation of tuberculin skin testing in
TB trials and prospective studies may prove informative as part of the ongoing effort
to better understand the relationship between the immune system
and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
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Authors' contributions
SCA, ESC, CMH, RM, KPC, GPB, and WRM substantially contributed to the study
conception and design. SCA performed the statistical analyses and wrote the first
draft of the manuscript. CMH provided statistical oversight and guidance. ESC,
CMH, RM, KPC, GPB, and WRM critically revised the manuscript for important
intellectual content. All authors have read and approved the final version of the
manuscript.
Acknowledgment
The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention.
BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13(460) © 2013 BioMed Central, Ltd.
Miliary Tuberculosis
Updated: Sep 13, 2013
Overview of Miliary Tuberculosis
Pathophysiology of Miliary TB
Etiology of Miliary TB
Epidemiology of Miliary TB
Clinical Manifestations of Miliary TB
Differential Diagnosis of Miliary TB
Laboratory Studies for Miliary TB
Imaging Studies for Miliary TB
Additional Tests and Procedures for Miliary TB
Histologic Findings of Miliary TB
Treatment Overview for Miliary TB
Pharmacological Therapy for Miliary TB
Further Inpatient Care for Miliary TB
Further Outpatient Care for Miliary TB
Miliary TB and Pregnancy
Transfer of Patients with Miliary TB
Prognosis of Miliary TB
Patient Education
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Multimedia Library
References
Overview of Miliary Tuberculosis
Miliary tuberculosis (TB) is the widespread dissemination of
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
via hematogenous spread. Classic miliary TB is defined as milletlike
(mean, 2 mm; range, 1-5 mm) seeding of TB bacilli in the lung, as evidenced on
chest radiography. This pattern is seen in 1-3% of all TB cases.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Miliary TB may occur in an individual organ (very rare, < 5%), in several organs, or
throughout the entire body (>90%), including the brain. The infection is characterized
by a large amount of TB bacilli, although it may easily be missed and is fatal if left
untreated.
Up to 25% of patients with miliary TB may have meningeal involvement. In addition,
miliary TB may mimic many diseases. In some case series, up to 50% of cases are
undiagnosed antemortem. Therefore, a high index of clinical suspicion is important
to obtain an early diagnosis and to ensure improved clinical outcomes.
Early empirical treatment for possible but not yet definitive miliary TB increases the
likelihood of survival and should never be withheld while test results are pending.
On autopsy, multiple TB lesions are detected throughout the body in organs such as
the lungs, liver, spleen, brain, and others.
Pathophysiology of Miliary TB
Following exposure and inhalation of TB bacilli in the lung, a primary pulmonary
complex is established, followed by development of pulmonary lymphangitis and
hilar lymphadenopathy. Mycobacteremia and hematogenous seeding occur after the
primary infection. After initial inhalation of TB bacilli, miliary tuberculosis may occur
as primary TB or may develop years after the initial infection. The disseminated
nodules consist of central caseating necrosis and peripheral epithelioid and fibrous
tissue. Radiographically, they are not calcified (as opposed to the initial Ghon focus,
which is often visible on chest radiographs as a small calcified nodule).
Etiology of Miliary TB
Risk factors for miliary tuberculosis involve immunosuppression and include, but are
not limited to, the following:
Cancer
Transplantation
HIV infection
[6, 7]
Malnutrition
Diabetes
Silicosis
End-stage renal disease
Major surgical procedures - Occasionally may trigger dissemination
Epidemiology of Miliary TB
Of all patients with TB, 1.5% are estimated to have miliary tuberculosis. The World
Health Organization reports that 2-3 million patients die with or from all forms of TB
each year.
[1, 8, 9]
The incidence of miliary TB may be higher in African Americans in the United States
because of socioeconomic risk factors and may be more common in men than in
women because of socioeconomic and medical risk factors. No genetic
predisposition has been identified.
Miliary disease is more difficult to detect in patients who are very young or very old.
Children younger than 5 years who acquire miliary TB are more likely to develop life-
threatening miliary and/or meningeal TB. The disease usually follows primary
infection, with no or only a short latency period. Adults older than 65 years have a
higher risk of miliary TB. Clinically, it may be subacute or may masquerade as a
malignancy. If undiagnosed, the disease is detected at autopsy.
Clinical Manifestations of Miliary TB
Patients with miliary tuberculosis may experience progressive symptoms over days
to weeks or occasionally over several months.
[10, 11]
Symptoms include the following:
Weakness, fatigue (90%)
Weight loss (80%)
Headache (10%)
Signs of miliary TB include the following:
Subtle signs, such as low-grade fever (20%)
Fever (80%)
Cough (60%)
Generalized lymphadenopathy (40%)
Hepatomegaly (40%)
Splenomegaly (15%)
Pancreatitis (< 5%)
Multiorgan dysfunction, adrenal insufficiency
Differential Diagnosis of Miliary TB
The differential diagnosis of miliary tuberculosis includes the following:
Acute respiratory distress syndrome
[12]
Addison disease
Ascites
Blastomycosis
Cardiac tamponade
Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Epididymal tuberculosis
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
Bacterial pneumonia
Community-acquired pneumonia
Fungal pneumonia
Viral pneumonia
Other problems to be considered include the following:
Fungal infection
Histiocytosis X (Langerhans cell histiocytosis)
HIV-related pulmonary opportunistic infections
Lymphangitic spread of cancer (eg, thyroid carcinoma, malignant melanoma)
Measles
Pancreatic abscess
Pulmonary alveolar microlithiasis
Talc granulomatosis
Laboratory Studies for Miliary TB
Chemistry
A decrease in sodium levels may correlate with disease severity, and the
syndrome
of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone
(
SIADH
) or hypoadrenalism may
complicate tuberculosis (TB). In approximately 30% of cases, alkaline phosphatase
levels are elevated.
Elevated levels of transaminases suggest liver involvement or, if treatment has been
initiated, drug toxicity.
Complete blood count
Leukopenia/leukocytosis may be present in miliary tuberculosis. Leukemoid
reactions may occur; patients may have anemia; and thrombocytopenia or, rarely,
thrombocytosis may be present.
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is elevated in approximately 50% of patients.
Cultures for mycobacteria
Cultures, as available, may include those of the sputum, blood, urine, or cerebral
spinal fluid. Sensitivity testing is essential for all positive isolates, and consider
investigation for multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) in all cases. Negative sputum
smear results (even 3 negatives) do not exclude the possibility of TB.
For mycobacterial blood cultures, findings are positive in approximately 5% of
patients who do not have HIV infection. Findings are positive in many patients who
have HIV infection. One study yielded an 85% positivity rate.
Lumbar puncture
should be strongly considered, even with normal brain MRI
findings, and may reveal any of the following:
Leukocytes: Approximately 65% of patients have WBC counts with 100-500
mononuclear cells/μL.
Lymphocytic predominance (70%)
CSF lactic acid levels are mildly elevated.
Elevated protein levels (90%)
Low glucose levels (90%)
RBCs are common
Acid-fast bacilli (≥40% with serial spinal taps)
Coagulation studies
Measure the prothrombin time/activated partial thromboplastin time (PT/aPTT) prior
to biopsy.
Tuberculin skin test
The tuberculin skin test with purified protein derivative (PPD) often yields negative
results in patients with miliary TB. This may be explained by the large number of TB
antigens throughout the body. Negative tuberculosis skin testing results do not
exclude the possibility of TB.
Nucleic acid probes
Specificity for smear-negative and culture-negative specimens is lower than 100%
(false-negative results). False-positive TB cultures are of concern, and the rate is
estimated to be approximately 5%. This may be due to laboratory contamination.
Polymerase chain reaction testing of the blood may yield positive results in most
cases of HIV-related disseminated TB; the yield is low in non-HIV miliary TB.
Imaging Studies for Miliary TB
Chest radiography
Findings are typical in 50% of cases. A bright spotlight helps to reveal miliary
nodules. Bilateral pleural effusions indicate dissemination versus localized and
unilateral pleural TB. This may be a useful clinical clue. Nodules characteristic of
miliary TB may be better visualized on lateral chest radiography (especially in the
retrocardiac space).
Chest CT scanning
Chest CT scanning has higher sensitivity and specificity than chest radiography in
displaying well-defined randomly distributed nodules. High-resolution CT scanning
with 1-mm cuts may be even better. It is useful in the presence of suggestive and
inconclusive chest radiography findings.
Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography may reveal diffuse liver disease, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, or
para-aortic lymph nodes.
Head CT scanning with contrast and/or MRI of the brain
Use this to assess for suspected TB lesions. Hydrocephalus or a cerebral mass
lesion (tuberculoma) may increase the risk of herniation if
lumbar puncture
is
performed.
Abdominal CT scanning
Abdominal CT scanning may reveal para-aortic lymph nodes, hepatosplenomegaly,
or tuberculous abscess.
Echocardiography
Echocardiography is the most sensitive test for pericardial effusion.
Additional Tests and Procedures for Miliary TB
Additional tests and procedures for miliary tuberculosis include the following:
Funduscopy may reveal retinal tubercles
Electrocardiography helps evaluate for pericardial effusion; right ventricular
hypertrophy may indicate pulmonary hypertension prior to lung biopsy
Miliary TB in a child indicates recent transmission, and contact investigation
could identify the source case and associated susceptibilities; contact investigation
of child index cases should be conducted quickly, and thoroughly evaluate
household contacts by means of tuberculin skin testing and, if the test results are
positive, chest radiography
Sputum induction has low sensitivity, and findings are smear-negative and
culture-negative in 80% of patients because of hematogenous spread
Fiberoptic bronchoscopy is the most effective procedure for obtaining cultures
(bronchoalveolar lavage)
The culture yield for transbronchial biopsies is 90%.
Bone marrow biopsy yield is approximately 50%, without serious adverse
effect
In liver biopsy, liver bleeding is a serious and potentially life-threatening
complication estimated to occur in approximately 10% of cases
For abdominal involvement, laparoscopy is useful to obtain tissue and
material for culture.
Histologic Findings of Miliary TB
Necrotizing granulomas are the hallmark of TB, and staining for acid-fast bacilli
reveals rodlike structures in approximately 80% of specimens (see the image
below). The disseminated nodules consist of central caseating necrosis and
peripheral epithelioid and fibrous tissue. Radiographically, the nodules are not
calcified.
Acid-fast bacillus smear showing characteristic cording in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Treatment Overview for Miliary TB
Miliary TB with meningeal involvement may require prolonged treatment (up to 12
mo). Early treatment of patients with suspected miliary tuberculosis decreases the
likelihood of mortality and improves outcome. Surgical treatment is rarely necessary.
Occasionally, a ventriculoatrial shunt is indicated for hydrocephalus.
[2, 13, 14, 6,
15]
Consultations may include the following:
Pulmonary and critical care specialists
Infectious disease specialist
Neurologist - Steroids for meningitis or paradoxically increasing tuberculomas
TB expert
Health department notification
Appropriate infection control measures
Failure to involve a TB specialist may lead to acquired resistant TB.
Adequate attention to nutrition is important. Many patients with miliary TB are
debilitated by the disease, and malnutrition can contribute to a weakened immune
system.
Once the patient receives several weeks of effective therapy, experiences significant
clinical improvement, and has negative sputum acid-fast bacillus smears, restrictions
are minimal. However, one must be certain that the patient truly is no longer
contagious. The absence of sputum positivity does not guarantee others protection
against exposure. Directly observed therapy is optimal for assuring compliance and
preventing relapse.
Paradoxical enlargement of the lymph nodes or intracerebral tuberculomas during
adequate treatment may require steroids. Hydrocephalus may require neurosurgical
decompression.
Pharmacological Therapy for Miliary TB
Early empirical therapy for suspected miliary tuberculosis is prudent. A delay of even
1-8 days contributes to a high mortality rate. Steroids are warranted for hypotension
due to presumed adrenal insufficiency after an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
stimulation test.
For susceptible organisms, the treatment period is 6-9 months. For meningitis, it is
9-12 months. For miliary TB with meningeal involvement, daily medications for the
entire length of therapy are recommended.
Three basic rules apply in the prevention of entirely "doctor-made" resistant TB:
1.
Rifampin
is the drug of choice for treatment; in most cases, the treatment
duration is at least 18 months without rifampin
2.
Ethambutol
(EMB) is used to prevent rifampin resistance if the organism is
resistant to
isoniazid
(INH); EMB can be discontinued as soon as the
organism is found to be susceptible to rifampin and INH
3.
Pyrazinamide
is used for the first 2 months of treatment to decrease the
treatment duration from 9 months to 6 months if the organism is susceptible to
rifampin and INH
For MDR-TB, use a minimum of 1 susceptible injectable and at least 3 additional
susceptible drugs to prevent the development of additional resistance. Treat MDR-
TB with the consultation of an expert in the care of TB.
Intermittent-type therapies have not been established. If MDR-TB test results are
pending, increasing the number of drugs is reasonable. For example, use 6 or 7
initial drugs, including an injectable.
Further Inpatient Care for Miliary TB
If the infected patient lives in a home with immunocompromised persons (eg, with
HIV infection) or with children younger than 5 years, or if the patient lives in a
communal residence type of facility (eg, homeless shelter, senior citizen facility, jail,
prison), keep him or her hospitalized until sputum stain results are negative and
significant clinical improvement is shown.
Evaluate all close contacts who might have been infected prior to initiation of
effective therapy for evidence of tuberculosis (TB). Contagiousness is low because
miliary TB spreads hematogenously, not via the endobronchial system. Cavitary
lesions are highly unlikely.
Further Outpatient Care for Miliary TB
Patients may start and continue treatment in an outpatient setting if no children or
immunocompromised persons are in the home or if the patient is not in a communal
residence facility.
Each patient should be offered directly observed therapy in the clinic, home, or
workplace.
Miliary TB and Pregnancy
Miliary tuberculosis during pregnancy can be treated safely with RIE (ie, rifampin,
INH, vitamin B-6 [25 mg/d] and ethambutol (EMB) [15 mg/kg/d]), but miliary TB in a
newborn of a mother with TB is difficult to diagnose.
Placenta examination by the pathologist is imperative. In a newborn, 3 gastric
aspirates of the newborn are helpful, but tuberculin skin testing of the newborn
during the first 6 months is rarely helpful because of the limited immune response of
the newborn.
Lumbar puncture
is indicated if the newborn does not thrive. Bacille
Calmette-Guérin vaccine clouds the interpretation of a positive tuberculin skin test
result after age 6 months.
Transfer of Patients with Miliary TB
The patient is usually removed from isolation when 3 consecutive sputum smear
results are negative and clinical improvement is shown. The patient must not be
confined with immunosuppressed patients prior to the establishment of negative
sputum cultures. Place the patient in a negative pressure room or in adequate
respiratory isolation.
Patients who discontinue medication may be subject to public health laws. Patients
may be remanded to custody and ordered to continue therapy if judged to be a
public health hazard.
When ordered compliance is not successful, the health department may obtain an
order of detention.
Prognosis of Miliary TB
If left untreated, the mortality associated with miliary tuberculosis is assumed to be
close to 100%. With early and appropriate treatment, however, mortality is reduced
to less than 10%. The earlier the diagnosis, the better the likelihood of a positive
outcome. Early treatment for suspected TB has been shown to improve outcome.
Most deaths occur within the first 2 weeks of admission to the hospital. This may be
related to delayed onset of treatment. Up to 50% of all cases of disseminated TB
detected at autopsy were missed antemortem in reported case series.
The relapse rate is 0-4% with adequate therapy and directly observed therapy,
although results from studies vary. Most relapses occur during the first 24 months
after completion of therapy.
Patient Education
Educate the patient and contacts about the mode of transmission.
For patient education information, see
Bacterial and Viral Infections Center
, as well
as
Tuberculosis
.
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Tuberculosis Organism-Specific Therapy
Updated: Jan 9, 2014
Diagnostic Studies and Therapeutic Regimens
Provided below are recommendations for diagnostic testing for tuberculosis as well
as first-line, second-line, and alternative treatment regimens; treatment
recommendations for extrapulmonary and for latent disease; special considerations;
and monitoring parameters.
Appropriate cultures
Tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and attempts should
be made to culture respiratory secretions from all persons with suspected
tuberculosis
When possible, sputum should be collected in the early morning on 3
consecutive days
In hospitalized patients, sputum can be collected every 8h to obtain
information more quickly
In persons unable to spontaneously produce sputum for culture, other
methods for obtaining a respiratory specimen include the following: sputum induction
via inhalation of hypertonic saline; gastric lavage (used primarily in young children);
and bronchoscopy with bronchial washings
In the appropriate clinical setting, mycobacterial cultures should be obtained
from pleural fluid, lymph nodes, cerebrospinal fluid, or any other tissue that is
clinically suspected of involvement
DNA-based tests provide rapid identification of tuberculosis; DNA probes are
approved for direct testing on smear-positive or smear-negative sputa
[1]
Other diagnostic testing
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing should be performed in all
patients with tuberculosis and an unknown HIV status
Drug susceptibility testing for all first-line medications should be obtained
Tuberculin skin testing (TST) (purified protein derivative [PPD] skin test;
Mantoux test) is used primarily to diagnose latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI); TST
has limited sensitivity in screening for active tuberculosis
TST interpretation:
Cut-offs for interpreting the TST are based on tuberculosis risk factors.
Wheal ≥ 5 mm:
Close contacts to persons with tuberculosis
Persons with HIV infection or other significant immunosuppression
Persons with apical radiographic abnormalities that are suspicious for
tuberculosis
Wheal ≥ 10 mm:
Patients with underlying medical conditions such as diabetes, end-stage renal
disease, or severe malnutrition
Recent immigrants from countries with high tuberculosis incidence
Recent converters (within 2y)
Employees or residents of institutional settings, including hospitals, nursing
homes, homeless shelters, and correctional facilities
Wheal ≥ 15 mm (with none of the above risk factors):
Whole blood assay based on interferon-gamma release (IGRA) is an
alternative test to TST
Available tests include QuantiFERON-TB GIT and T-SPOT.TB
Sensitivity and specificity are similar to TST
Antigens used for the IGRA tests do not cross-react with BCG
First-line treatment recommendations (pulmonary disease)
Initial-phase therapy
[2, 3, 4]
:
Tuberculosis is caused by organisms that are resistant to isoniazid; therefore,
a 4-drug regimen is necessary in the initial phase
Generally, all adults with previously untreated tuberculosis should get 2-mo initial-
phase therapy of the following:
Isoniazid
(INH) 5 mg/kg/day (maximum [max] 300 mg/day, 10 mg/kg/day in
children) PO plus
Rifampin
(RIF) 10 mg/kg/day (max 600 mg/day, 15 mg/kg/day in children)
PO plus
Pyrazinamide
(PZA) 25 mg/kg/day (max 2 g/day, 35 mg/kg/day in children per
World Health Organization [WHO] guidelines, 15-30 mg/kg/day in children per
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] guidelines) PO plus
Ethambutol
(EMB) 15 mg/kg/day (max 1.6 g/day, 20 mg/kg/day in children)
PO
If PZA cannot be included in the initial phase of treatment, or if the isolate is resistant
to PZA alone (an unusual circumstance), the initial phase should consist of INH, RIF,
and EMB given daily for 2mo; examples of circumstances in which PZA may be
withheld include severe liver disease, gout, and, perhaps, pregnancy.
Duration of therapy:
The initial phase may be given daily for 2wk and then twice weekly for 6wk, or
3 times weekly throughout
For patients receiving daily therapy, EMB can be discontinued as soon as the
results of drug susceptibility studies demonstrate the isolate is susceptible to INH
and RIF
For drug-susceptible tuberculosis, INH, RIF, PZA, and EMB are given until
susceptibilities become available; then, EMB can be discontinued
Regardless of the initial therapy, the continuation phase is 4mo with INH plus
RIF based on clinical parameters
Intermittent dosing (only for use in patients on directly observed therapy [DOT])
[4]
:
INH 20 mg/kg (max 900 mg) PO 3 times weekly plus
RIF 10 mg/kg (max 600 mg) PO 3 times weekly plus
PZA 35 mg/kg (max 3000 mg) PO 3 times weekly plus
EMB 30 mg/kg (max 2800 mg) PO 3 times weekly
Second-line treatments (for drug-resistant tuberculosis or intolerance to
first-line drugs)
Amikacin
15-20 mg/kg IV daily or
Capreomycin
15-30 mg/kg (max 1000 mg) IV or IM daily or
Cycloserine
15 mg/kg (max 1000 mg) PO daily (may divide into 2 doses) or
Ethionamide
250 mg PO BID/TID or
Levofloxacin
500-1000 mg PO daily or
Linezolid
600 mg PO BID or
Moxifloxacin
400 mg PO daily or
Para-aminosalicylic acid (PAS) 4 g PO TID
Continuation-phase therapy
Treatment should be based on chest x-ray and sputum culture results after 2-
mo initial-treatment phase
No cavitation on chest x-ray:
If negative sputum culture: INH 5 mg/kg/day (max 300 mg/day, 10 mg/kg/day
in children) PO plus RIF 10 mg/kg/day (max 600 mg/day, 15 mg/kg/day in
children) PO for 4mo or
INH 5 mg/kg/day (max 300 mg/day, 10 mg/kg/day in children)
PO plus
rifapentine
300 mg PO once a week for 4mo, which is a treatment option
only for nonpregnant, HIV-negative adults without cavitary or extrapulmonary
disease who are smear-negative at 2mo
If positive sputum culture: INH 5 mg/kg/day (max 300 mg/day, 10 mg/kg/day
in children) PO plus RIF 10 mg/kg/day (max 600 mg/day, 15 mg/kg/day in
children) PO for 4mo or
INH 5 mg/kg/day (max 300 mg/day, 10 mg/kg/day in children)
PO plus rifapentine 300 mg PO once a week for 7mo, which is a treatment option
only for nonpregnant, HIV-negative adults without cavitary or extrapulmonary
disease who are smear-negative at 2mo
Cavitation on chest x-ray
[4]
:
If negative sputum culture: INH 5 mg/kg/day (max 300 mg/day, 10 mg/kg/day
in children) PO plus RIF 10 mg/kg/day (max 600 mg/day, 15 mg/kg/day in children)
PO for 4mo
If positive sputum culture: INH 5 mg/kg/day (max 300 mg/day, 10 mg/kg/day
in children) PO plus RIF 10 mg/kg/day (max 600 mg/day, 15 mg/kg/day in children)
PO for 7mo
Duration of therapy:
The continuation phase is given for either 4 or 7mo; the 4-mo treatment is
more commonly prescribed
The 7-mo continuation phase is recommended for 3 groups: (1) patients with
cavitary pulmonary tuberculosis caused by drug-susceptible organisms and whose
sputum culture obtained at the time of completion of 2mo of treatment is positive;
(2) patients whose initial phase of treatment did not include PZA; and (3) patients
being treated with once weekly INH and rifapentine and whose sputum culture
obtained at the time of completion of the initial phase is positive
The continuation phase may be given daily, 2 times weekly by DOT, or 3 times
weekly by DOT
Alternative-treatment recommendations
Intermittent regimens with rifapentine may be considered for selected patients
to avoid relapse or to avoid rifamycin resistance (patients who are HIV positive
should not receive rifapentine)
Rifapentine may be used once weekly with INH in the continuation phase
(rifapentine 10 mg/kg [max 600 mg] PO once weekly plus INH 15 mg/kg [max 900
mg] PO once weekly); rifapentine 600 mg PO twice weekly (induction phase)
Rifabutin can be used as a substitute for rifampin; the recommended dose
of
rifabutin
is 5 mg/kg (max 300 mg) PO daily
Streptomycin has been shown to be as effective as EMB; general dosing
recommendations of
streptomycin
are 15 mg/kg (max 1000 mg) IM or IV daily given
5-7 times a week and reduced to 2-3 times a week after the first 2-4mo or after
culture conversion; streptomycin 10 mg/kg IM or IV is recommended in persons >
59y
Principles used in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis also apply to
extrapulmonary tuberculosis
[5]
Treatment with INH and RIF is preferred for a duration of 6mo for most cases
of extrapulmonary disease—except for bone and joint disease, which is generally
treated for 6-9mo, and neurotuberculosis, which is generally treated for 9-12mo
[5]
Treatment of LTBI
Preferred regimen includes INH 300 mg PO daily for 9mo
[3]
or
RIF 600 mg PO daily for 4 mo
[3]
INH 900 mg PO plus rifapentine 900 mg PO weekly for 12 weeks (must be
administered as directly observed therapy)
[6]
Patients diagnosed with LTBI should have a significant reaction to TST or
have a positive blood assay; active tuberculosis should be ruled out
[3]
Special considerations
PZA can be given at the usual dose with mild to moderate renal impairment,
but the dosing needs to be reduced in patients with severe renal impairment;
generally avoid use of PZA during pregnancy, unless the patient has HIV or drug-
resistant tuberculosis
Dosing for streptomycin must be adjusted with any degree of renal
impairment and should not be given during pregnancy
EMB dosing should be decreased with mild to moderate renal impairment;
EMB should generally be avoided in patients with severe renal impairment
Many of the drugs used to treat tuberculosis are potentially hepatotoxic;
increased monitoring of hepatic signs and symptoms is important
Liver enzymes should be monitored at least monthly and more often in
patients with severe hepatic impairment; liver enzymes must be monitored at least
monthly in patients on tuberculosis therapy
Renal function should be checked periodically in patients on medications
requiring dose adjustments for renal insufficiency
Hospitalized patients with suspected or documented tuberculosis must be
placed in appropriate isolation; this includes a private room with negative pressure
and adequate air exchanges; persons entering the room must wear masks or
respirators capable of filtering droplet nuclei
Regimens for the treatment of persons coinfected with HIV and tuberculosis
must account for the numerous potential drug-drug interactions between
antiretroviral and antituberculosis medications
Monitoring parameters
Sputum smear and culture should be assessed every 2-4wk until negative
Therapy should be extended to 9mo if the patient has cavitary disease and
remains culture-positive after 2mo of treatment
Chest radiographs should be reassessed in patients who are not improving
clinically
Serum uric acid should be monitored in patients who require long-term PZA
therapy
Patients who are receiving long-term EMB therapy should undergo periodic
visual acuity and red-green color-perception testing
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