Pediatric Tuberculosis
Updated: Jan 31, 2014
Overview of Tuberculosis
TB Risk Factors
Mechanism of TB Infection
TB Incidence and Prevalence
ATS Staging Criteria of Pediatric TB
Overview of Pediatric TB Evaluation
Evaluation of Pediatric Pulmonary TB
Evaluation of Pediatric Extrapulmonary TB
Tuberculin Skin Test
Specimen Collection for Analysis
AFB Staining
Mycobacterium Cultures
Species Identification
Nucleic Acid Probes
Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests
Immunoassays
M tuberculosis Drug Susceptibility
Serology
Management Overview
Treatment of Pulmonary TB
Treating Extrapulmonary TB
Managing TB With HIV Coinfection
Multidrug-Resistant TB
Neonates With Household Contacts With TB
Surgical Management of TB
Complications of TB Disease
Outcomes of TB Disease
Patient Surveillance
Prevention of TB Disease
Special Considerations
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References
Overview of Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is the most common cause of infection-related death worldwide. In
1993, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared TB to be a global public health
emergency.
Tubercle bacilli belong to the order Actinomycetales and family
Mycobacteriaceae. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the most common cause of this
disease, and it is seen in the image below. Other rare causes include M bovis and M
africanum.
The acid-fast characteristic of the mycobacteria is their unique feature. M
tuberculosis is an aerobic, non-spore-forming, nonmotile, slow-growing bacillus with
a curved and beaded rod-shaped morphology. It is a very hardy bacillus that can
survive under adverse environmental conditions. Humans are the only known
reservoirs for M tuberculosis.
Acid-fast bacillus smear showing characteristic cording in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Most persons infected with M tuberculosis do not develop active disease.
In healthyindividuals, the lifetime risk of developing disease is 5-10%. In certain
instances, such as extremes of age or defects in cell-mediated immune (CMI)
response (eg,
human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] infection
,
malnutrition
,
administration ofchemotherapy, prolonged steroid use), TB may develop. For
patients with HIV infection, the risk of developing TB is 7-10% per year.
For patient education information, see eMedicineHealth's
Infections Center
. Also,
see eMedicineHealth's patient education article
Tuberculosis
.
Go to Medscape Reference articles
Tuberculosis
,
Miliary Tuberculosis
,
Primary
Tuberculosis Imaging
,
Pediatric HIV Infection
, and
HIV Disease
for moreinformation
on these topics.
TB Risk Factors
Risk factors for the acquisition of tuberculosis (TB) are usually exogenous to the
patient. Thus, likelihood of being infected depends on the environment and the
features of the index case. However, the development of TB disease depends on
inherent immunologic status of the host.
Tuberculosis has been reported in patients treated for arthritis, inflammatory bowel
disease, and other conditions with tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha
blockers/antagonists.
Factors in acquiring TB infection
The number of bacilli in the inoculum and the relative virulence of the organism are
the major factors determining transmission of the disease. TB is transmitted by
inhaling the tubercle bacilli.
The infectiousness of the source case is of vital importance in determining likelihood
of transmission. Bacillary population of TB lesions varies and depends on the
morphology of the lesion. Nodular lesions have 100-10,000 organisms, whereas
cavitary lesions have 10 million to 1 billion bacilli. Thus, persons with cavitary lesions
are highly infectious. Also, contacts of persons with sputum-positive smears have an
increased prevalence of infection as opposed to contacts of those with sputum-
negative smears.
Persons who have received anti-TB drugs are much less infectious than those who
have not received any treatment. This decline in infectiousness is due primarily to
reduction in the bacillary population in the lungs.
Environmental factors also contribute to the likelihood of acquiring the infection. The
concentration of bacilli depends on the ventilation of the surroundings and exposure
to ultraviolet light. Thus, overcrowding, congregation in prison settings, poor
housing, and inadequate ventilation predispose individuals to the development of
TB.
Factors in acquiring TB disease
Defects in cell-mediated immunity (CMI) and level of immunocompetence are major
determinants for development of disease. In fact, infection with human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one of the most significant risk factors for TB
infection. Case rates for persons who are dually infected with HIV and M
tuberculosis exceed the lifetime risk of persons with TB infection who are not
infected with HIV.
Steroid therapy, cancer chemotherapy, and hematologic malignancies increase the
risk of TB. In addition, malnutrition interferes with the CMI response and therefore
accounts for much of the increased frequency of TB in impoverished patients.
Non-TB infections, such as
measles
,
varicella
, and
pertussis
, may activate quiescent
TB.
Individuals with certain human leukocyte antigen (HLA) types have a predisposition
to TB. Hereditary factors, including the presence of a Bcg gene, have been
implicated in susceptibility to acquisition of this disease.
Mechanism of TB Infection
Tuberculosis (TB) occurs when individuals inhale bacteria aerosolized by infected
persons. The organism is slow growing and tolerates the intracellular environment,
where it may remain metabolically inert for years before reactivation and disease.
The main determinant of the pathogenicity of TB is its ability to escape host defense
mechanisms, including macrophages and delayed hypersensitivity responses.
Virulence factors and infective droplets
Among the several virulence factors in the mycobacterial cell wall are the cord
factor, lipoarabinomannan (LAM), and a highly immunogenic 65-kd M
tuberculosisheat shock protein. Cord factor is a surface glycolipid present only in
virulent strains that causes M tuberculosis to grow in serpentine cords in vitro. LAM
is a heteropolysaccharide that inhibits macrophage activation by interferon (IFN)-
gamma and induces macrophages to secrete TNF-alpha, which causes fever,
weight loss, and tissue damage.
The infective droplet nucleus is very small, measuring 5 µm or less, and may contain
approximately 1-10 bacilli. Although a single organism may cause disease, 5-200
inhaled bacilli are usually necessary for infection. The small size of the droplets
allows them to remain suspended in the air for a prolonged time period. Primary
infection of the respiratory tract occurs as a result of inhalation of these aerosols.
The risk of infection is increased in small enclosed areas and in areas with poor
ventilation. Upon inhalation, the bacilli are deposited (usually in the midlung zone)
into the distal respiratory bronchiole or alveoli, which are subpleural in location.
Subsequently, the alveolar macrophages phagocytose the inhaled bacilli. However,
these naïve macrophages are unable to kill the mycobacteria, and the bacilli
continue to multiply unimpeded.
Seeding
Transportation of the infected macrophages to the regional lymph nodes then
occurs. Lymphohematogenous dissemination of the mycobacteria travels to other
lymph nodes, the kidney, epiphyses of long bones, vertebral bodies, juxtaependymal
meninges adjacent to the subarachnoid space, and, occasionally, to the apical
posterior areas of the lungs. In addition, chemotactic factors released by the
macrophages attract circulating monocytes to the site of infection, leading to
differentiation of the monocytes into macrophages and ingestion of free bacilli.
Logarithmic multiplication of the mycobacteria occurs within the macrophage at the
primary site of infection.
Immune response
A cell-mediated immune (CMI) response terminates the unimpeded growth of the M
tuberculosis 2-3 weeks after initial infection. CD4 helper T cells activate the
macrophages to kill the intracellular bacteria with resultant epithelioid granuloma
formation. CD8 suppressor T cells lyse the macrophages infected with the
mycobacteria, resulting in the formation of caseating granulomas. Mycobacteria
cannot continue to grow in the acidic extracellular environment, so most infections
are controlled.
TNF is a potent inflammatory cytokine that plays an important role in immune
defense against M tuberculosis. TNF-mediated innate immune responses, including
phagolysosomal maturation and cell-mediated responses (eg, IFN-gamma secretion
by memory T cells, complement-mediated lysis of M tuberculosis –reactive CD8+ T
cells) are important immune responses in M tuberculosis infection.
Evidence of infection includes a positive tuberculin skin test (TST) result (see
Tuberculin Skin Test) or a positive IFN-gamma release assay (IGRAs) finding.
However, the initial pulmonary site of infection and its adjacent lymph nodes (ie,
primary complex or Ghon focus) sometimes reach sufficient size to develop necrosis
and subsequent radiographic calcification.
Disease progression
Progression of the primary complex may lead to enlargement of hilar and
mediastinal nodes with resultant bronchial collapse. Progressive primary TB may
develop when the primary focus cavitates and organisms spread through contiguous
bronchi.
Lymphohematogenous dissemination, especially in young patients, may lead to
miliary TB when caseous material reaches the bloodstream from a primary focus or
a caseating metastatic focus in the wall of a pulmonary vein (Weigert focus). TB
meningitis may also result from hematogenous dissemination. Bacilli may remain
dormant in the apical posterior areas of the lung for several months or years, with
later progression of disease resulting in the development of reactivation-type TB (ie,
endogenous reinfection TB).
Go to
Miliary Tuberculosis
, and
Tuberculous Meningitis
for more information on
these topics.
TB Incidence and Prevalence
Globally, the World Health Organization (WHO) reports more than 9 million new
cases of tuberculosis (TB) occur each year,
[1]
and an estimated, 19-43.5% of the
world's population is infected with M tuberculosis.
[2]
This disease occurs
disproportionately among disadvantaged populations, such as homeless individuals,
malnourished individuals, and those living in crowded areas. Most cases of TB occur
in the South-East Asia (35%), African (30%), and Western Pacific (20%) regions.
[1]
In the United States, approximately 15 million people are infected with M
tuberculosis. The number of US cases reported annually dropped 74% between
1953 and 1985 (84,304 to 22,201), but there was a subsequent resurgence, peaking
at 26,673 cases in 1992. Unfortunately, although the incidence of TB increased by
approximately 13% in all ages from 1985-1994, the rate among children younger
than 15 years increased by 33%.
This resurgence was attributed to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
epidemic, which increased the risk of developing active TB among persons infected
with HIV and those latent TB infection. Other contributory factors included
emigration from developing countries and transmission in settings such as endemic
hospitals and prisons. In addition, the development of multidrug-resistant (MDR)
organisms and deterioration of the public health infrastructure for TB services further
contributed to the rise in the number of cases.
Go to
Tuberculosis
,
HIV Infection
, and
HIV Disease
for more information on these
topics.
Factors contributing to decline in US cases
Since 1992, the US case numbers of TB has declined. Increased awareness of the
disease, the institution of more aggressive preventive measures, improvement in
healthcare strategies (eg, prompt identification and treatment of patients with TB),
and highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for individuals with HIV infection
have contributed to this decline. However, a huge reservoir of individuals who are
infected with M tuberculosis remains.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), a total of
12,898 new cases of TB were reported in the United States in 2008,
[3]
representing a
rate of 4.2 cases per 100,000 population. This was the lowest rate recorded since
national reporting began in 1953. However, the rate of the decline has slowed since
2000,
[4, 5]
influenced by the rate of TB of foreign origin, which increased 5% from
1993-2004, whereas the rate of affected US-born individuals declined 62% over the
same period.
ATS Staging Criteria of Pediatric TB
Although the natural history of tuberculosis (TB) in children follows a continuum, the
American Thoracic Society (ATS) definition of stages is useful.
[6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
Stage 1
Exposure has occurred, implying that the child has had recent contact with an adult
who has contagious TB. The child has no physical signs or symptoms and has a
negative tuberculin skin test (TST) result (see Tuberculin Skin Test). Chest
radiography does not reveal any changes at this stage.
Not all patients who are exposed become infected, and the TST result may not be
positive for 3 months. Unfortunately, children younger than 5 years may develop
disseminated TB in the form of miliary disease or TB meningitis before the TST
result becomes positive. Thus, a very high index of suspicion is required when a
young patient has a history of contact.
Go to
Miliary Tuberculosis
, and
Tuberculous Meningitis
for more information on
these topics.
Stage 2
This second stage is heralded by a positive TST result. No signs and symptoms
occur, although an incidental chest radiograph may reveal the primary complex.
Stage 3
In stage 3, TB disease occurs and is characterized by the appearance of signs and
symptoms depending on the location of the disease. Radiographic abnormalities
may also be seen.
Stage 4
Stage 4 is defined as TB with no current disease. This implies that the patient has a
history of previous episodes of TB or abnormal, stable radiographic findings with a
significant reaction to the TST and negative bacteriologic studies. No clinical findings
suggesting current disease are present.
Stage 5
TB is suspected, and the diagnosis is pending.
Overview of Pediatric TB Evaluation
Any patient with pneumonia,
pleural effusion
, or a cavitary or mass lesion in the lung
that does not improve with standard antibacterial therapy should be evaluated for
tuberculosis (TB). Also, patients with fever of unknown origin,
failure to thrive
,
significant weight loss, or unexplained lymphadenopathy should be evaluated for
TB.
Congenital TB
Congenital disease is rare. Symptoms typically develop during the second or third
week of life and include poor feeding, poor weight gain, cough, lethargy, and
irritability. Other symptoms include fever, ear discharge, and skin lesions.
Signs of congenital TB include failure to thrive, icterus, hepatosplenomegaly,
tachypnea, and lymphadenopathy.
Asymptomatic infection
Patients with asymptomatic infection have a positive tuberculin skin test (TST)
result, but they do not have any clinical or radiographic manifestations. Children with
asymptomatic infection may be identified on a routine well-child physical
examination, or they may be identified subsequent to TB diagnosis in household or
other contacts (eg, children who recently have immigrated, adopted children).
Primary TB is characterized by the absence of any signs on clinical evaluation. As
discussed above, these patients are identified by a positive TST result. Tuberculin
hypersensitivity may be associated with erythema nodosum and phlyctenular
conjunctivitis.
Evaluation of Pediatric Pulmonary TB
Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) may manifest itself in several forms, including
endobronchial TB with focal lymphadenopathy, progressive pulmonary disease,
pleural involvement, and reactivated pulmonary disease. Symptoms of primary
pulmonary disease in the pediatric population are often meager. Fever, night sweats,
anorexia, nonproductive cough, failure to thrive, and difficulty gaining weight may
occur. Signs of disease depend on the site involved (pulmonary or extrapulmonary).
Endobronchial TB with lymphadenopathy
Endobronchial disease with enlargement of lymph nodes is the most common
variety of pulmonary TB. Symptoms are the result of impingement on various
structures by the enlarged lymph nodes. Enlargement of lymph nodes and persistent
cough may result in signs suggestive of bronchial obstruction or hemidiaphragmatic
paralysis, whereas difficulty swallowing may result from esophageal compression.
Vocal cord paralysis may be suggested by hoarseness or difficulty breathing and
may occur as a result of local nerve compression. Dysphagia due to esophageal
compression may also be observed.
TB pleural effusion
Pleural effusions due to TB usually occur in older children and are rarely associated
with miliary disease. The typical history reveals an acute onset of fever, chest pain
that increases in intensity on deep inspiration, and shortness of breath. Fever
usually persists for 14-21 days.
Signs include tachypnea, respiratory distress, dullness to percussion, decreased
breath sounds, and, occasionally, features of mediastinal shift.
Progressive primary TB
Progression of the pulmonary parenchymal component leads to enlargement of the
caseous area and may lead to pneumonia, atelectasis, and air trapping. This is more
likely to occur in young children than in adolescents. The child usually appears ill
with symptoms of fever, cough, malaise, and weight loss.
This condition presents with classic signs of pneumonia, including tachypnea, nasal
flaring, grunting, dullness to percussion, egophony, decreased breath sounds, and
crackles.
Reactivation TB
Reactivation of TB disease usually has a subacute presentation with weight loss,
fever, cough, and, rarely, hemoptysis. This condition typically occurs in older children
and adolescent and is more common in patients who acquire TB at age 7 years and
older.
Physical examination results may be normal or may reveal posttussive crackles.
Evaluation of Pediatric Extrapulmonary TB
Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB) includes peripheral lymphadenopathy, TB
meningitis, miliary TB, skeletal TB, and other organ involvement. Other unusual sites
for TB include the middle ear, gastrointestinal (GI) tract, skin, kidneys, and ocular
structures.
Go to
Scrofula
,
Tuberculosis of the Genitourinary System
,
Miliary Tuberculosis
,
and
Tuberculous Meningitis
for more information on these topics.
Lymphadenopathy
Patients with lymphadenopathy (ie, scrofula) may have a history of enlarged nodes.
Fever, weight loss, fatigue, and malaise are usually absent or minimal. Lymph node
involvement typically occurs 6-9 months following initial infection by the tubercle
bacilli. More superficial lymph nodes commonly are involved. Frequent sites of
involvement include the anterior cervical, submandibular, and supraclavicular nodes.
TB of the skeletal system may lead to involvement of the inguinal, epitrochlear, or
axillary lymph nodes.
Typically, infected lymph nodes are firm and nontender with nonerythematous
overlying skin. The nodes are initially nonfluctuant. Suppuration and spontaneous
drainage of the lymph nodes may occur with caseation and the development of
necrosis.
TB meningitis
One of the most severe complications of TB is TB meningitis, which develops in 5-
10% of children younger than 2 years; thereafter, the frequency drops to less than
1%. A very high index of suspicion is required to make a timely diagnosis because of
the insidious onset of the disease.
A subacute presentation usually occurs within 3-6 months after the initial infection.
Nonspecific symptoms such as anorexia, weight loss, and fever may be present.
After 1-2 weeks, patients may experience vomiting and seizures or alteration in the
sensorium. Deterioration of mental status, coma, and death may occur despite
prompt diagnosis and early intervention.
Three stages of TB meningitis have been identified. Stage 1 is defined by the
absence of focal or generalized neurologic signs. Possibly, only nonspecific
behavioral abnormalities are found.
Stage 2 is characterized by the presence of nuchal rigidity, altered deep tendon
reflexes, lethargy, and/or cranial nerve palsies. TB meningitis most often affects the
sixth cranial nerve due to the pressure of the thick basilar inflammatory exudates on
the cranial nerves or to hydrocephalus; this results in lateral rectus palsy. The third,
fourth, and seventh cranial nerves may also be affected. Funduscopic changes may
include papilledema and the presence of choroid tubercles, which should be
carefully sought.
Stage 3, the final stage, comprises major neurologic defects, including coma,
seizures, and abnormal movements (eg, choreoathetosis, paresis, paralysis of one
or more extremities). In the terminal phase, decerebrate or decorticate posturing,
opisthotonus, and/or death may occur. Patients with tuberculomas or TB brain
abscesses may present with focal neurologic signs. Spinal cord disease may result
in the acute development of spinal block or a transverse myelitis–like syndrome. A
slowly ascending paralysis may develop over several months to years.
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