http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230802-overview
Tuberculosis
Author: Thomas E Herchline, MD; Chief Editor: Michael Stuart Bronze, MD et all
15.decembar 2014
Overview
Presentation
DDx
Workup
Treatment
Medication
Updated: Jun 9, 2014
Practice Essentials
Background
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Epidemiology
Prognosis
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Multimedia Library
References
Practice Essentials
Tuberculosis (TB), a multisystemic disease with myriad presentations and
manifestations, is the most common cause of infectious disease–related mortality
worldwide. Although TB rates are decreasing in the United States, the disease is
becoming more common in many parts of the world. In addition, the prevalence of
drug-resistant TB is increasing worldwide.
Essential update: Prophylactic isoniazid reduces TB risk in children
In a meta-analysis of 8 randomized controlled studies involving a total of 10,320
patients aged 15 years or younger, Ayieko et al found that isoniazid prophylaxis
reduced the risk of developing TB, with a pooled risk ratio (RR) of 0.65 (95%
confidence interval [CI], 0.47-0.89; P = .004).
[1]
Various subgroup analyses were done, but participant age was the only factor
associated with substantial differences in the summary estimate of efficacy.
[1]
Isoniazid had no effect in children who initiated treatment at 4 months of age or
earlier. When these patients were excluded, isoniazid prophylaxis reduced the risk of
developing TB by 59% (RR, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.31-0.55; P < 0.001).
Signs and symptoms
Classic clinical features associated with active pulmonary TB are as follows (elderly
individuals with TB may not display typical signs and symptoms):
Cough
Weight loss/anorexia
Fever
Night sweats
Hemoptysis
Chest pain (can also result from tuberculous
acute pericarditis
)
Fatigue
Symptoms of
tuberculous meningitis
may include the following:
Headache that has been either intermittent or persistent for 2-3 weeks
Subtle mental status changes that may progress to coma over a period of
days to weeks
Low-grade or absent fever
Symptoms of skeletal TB may include the following:
Back pain or stiffness
Lower-extremity paralysis, in as many as half of patients with
undiagnosed
Pott disease
Tuberculous arthritis, usually involving only 1 joint (most often the hip or
knee, followed by the ankle, elbow, wrist, and shoulder)
Symptoms of genitourinary TB may include the following:
Flank pain
Dysuria
Frequent urination
In men, a painful scrotal mass, prostatitis, orchitis, or
epididymitis
In women, symptoms mimicking
pelvic inflammatory disease
Symptoms of gastrointestinal TB are referable to the infected site and may include
the following:
Nonhealing ulcers of the mouth or anus
Difficulty swallowing (with esophageal disease)
Abdominal pain mimicking peptic ulcer disease (with gastric or duodenal
infection)
Malabsorption (with infection of the small intestine)
Pain, diarrhea, or hematochezia (with infection of the colon)
Physical examination findings associated with TB depend on the organs involved.
Patients with pulmonary TB may have the following:
Abnormal breath sounds, especially over the upper lobes or involved areas
Rales or bronchial breath signs, indicating lung consolidation
Signs of extrapulmonary TB differ according to the tissues involved and may include
the following:
Confusion
Coma
Neurologic deficit
Chorioretinitis
Lymphadenopathy
Cutaneous lesions
The absence of any significant physical findings does not exclude active TB. Classic
symptoms are often absent in high-risk patients, particularly those who are
immunocompromised or elderly.
See
Clinical Presentation
for more detail.
Diagnosis
Screening methods for TB include the following:
Mantoux tuberculin skin testwith purified protein derivative (PPD) for active or
latent infection (primary method)
In vitro blood test based on interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) with
antigens specific for Mycobacterium tuberculosis for latent infection
Obtain the following laboratory tests for patients with suspected TB:
Acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smear and culture using sputum obtained from the
patient: Absence of a positive smear result does not exclude active TB infection;
AFB culture is the most specific test for TB
HIV serology in all patients with TB and unknown HIV status: Individuals
infected with HIV are at increased risk for TB
Other diagnostic testing may warrant consideration, including the following:
Specific enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot)
Nucleic acid amplification tests
Blood culture
Positive cultures should be followed by drug susceptibility testing; symptoms and
radiographic findings do not differentiate multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) from fully
susceptible TB. Such testing may include the following:
Direct DNA sequencing analysis
Automated molecular testing
Microscopic-observation drug susceptibility (MODS) and thin-layer agar (TLA)
assays
Additional rapid tests (eg, BACTEC-460, ligase chain reaction, luciferase
reporter assays, FASTPlaque TB-RIF)
Obtain a chest radiograph to evaluate for possible associated pulmonary findings.
The following patterns may be seen:
Cavity formation: Indicates advanced infection; associated with a high
bacterial load
Noncalcified round infiltrates: May be confused with lung carcinoma
Homogeneously calcified nodules (usually 5-20 mm): Tuberculomas,
representing old infection
Primary TB: Typically, pneumonialike picture of infiltrative process in middle or
lower lung regions
Reactivation TB: Pulmonary lesions in posterior segment of right upper lobe,
apicoposterior segment of left upper lobe, and apical segments of lower lobes
TB associated with HIV disease: Frequently atypical lesions or normal chest
radiographic findings
Healed and latent TB: Dense pulmonary nodules in hilar or upper lobes;
smaller nodules in upper lobes
Miliary TB: Numerous small, nodular lesions that resemble millet seeds
Pleural TB: Empyema may be present, with associated pleural effusions
Workup considerations for extrapulmonary TB include the following:
Biopsy of bone marrow, liver, or blood cultures
If tuberculous meningitis or tuberculoma is suspected, perform lumbar
puncture
If vertebral (
Pott disease
) or brain involvement is suspected, CT or MRI is
necessary
If genitourinary complaints are reported, urinalysis and urine cultures can be
obtained
See
Workup
for more detail.
Management
Physical measures (if possible or practical) include the following:
Isolate patients with possible TB in a private room with negative pressure
Have medical staff wear high-efficiency disposable masks sufficient to filter
the bacillus
Continue isolation until sputum smears are negative for 3 consecutive
determinations (usually after approximately 2-4 weeks of treatment)
Initial empiric pharmacologic therapy consists of the following 4-drug regimens:
Isoniazid
Rifampin
Pyrazinamide
Either ethambutol or streptomycin
[2]
Special considerations for drug therapy in pregnant women include the following:
In the United States, pyrazinamide is reserved for women with suspected
MDR-TB
Streptomycin should not be used
Preventive treatment is recommended during pregnancy
Pregnant women are at increased risk for isoniazid-induced hepatotoxicity
Breastfeeding can be continued during preventive therapy
Special considerations for drug therapy in children include the following:
Most children with TB can be treated with isoniazid and rifampin for 6 months,
along with pyrazinamide for the first 2 months if the culture from the source case is
fully susceptible.
For postnatal TB, the treatment duration may be increased to 9 or 12 months
Ethambutol is often avoided in young children
Special considerations for drug therapy in HIV-infected patients include the
following:
Dose adjustments may be necessary
[3, 4]
Rifampin must be avoided in patients receiving protease inhibitors; rifabutin
may be substituted
Considerations in patients receiving antiretroviral therapy include the
following:
Patients with HIV and TB may develop a paradoxical response when starting
antiretroviral therapy
Starting antiretroviral therapy early (eg, < 4 weeks after the start of TB
treatment) may reduce progression to AIDS and death
[5]
In patients with higher CD4+ T-cell counts, it may be reasonable to defer
antiretroviral therapy until the continuation phase of TB treatment
[6]
Multidrug-resistant TB
When MDR-TB is suspected, start treatment empirically before culture results
become available, then modify the regimen as necessary. Never add a single new
drug to a failing regimen. Administer at least 3 (preferably 4-5) of the following
medications, according to drug susceptibilities:
An aminoglycoside: Streptomycin, amikacin, capreomycin, kanamycin
A fluoroquinolone: Levofloxacin (best suited over the long term), ciprofloxacin,
ofloxacin
A thioamide: Ethionamide, prothionamide
Pyrazinamide
Ethambutol
Cycloserine
Terizidone
Para-aminosalicylic acid
Rifabutin as a substitute for rifampin
A diarylquinoline: Bedaquiline
Surgical resection is recommended for patients with MDR-TB whose prognosis with
medical treatment is poor. Procedures include the following:
Segmentectomy (rarely used)
Lobectomy
Pneumonectomy
Pleurectomy for thick pleural peel (rarely indicated)
Latent TB
Recommended regimens for isoniazid and rifampin for latent TB have been
published by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
[7]
: An
alternative regimen for latent TB is isoniazid plus rifapentine
[8]
; it is not
recommended for children under 2 years, pregnant women or women planning to
become pregnant, HIV-infected persons taking antiretrovirals, or patients with TB
infection presumed to result from exposure to a person with TB that is resistant to 1
of the 2 drugs.
See
Treatment
and
Medication
for more detail.
Image library
Anteroposterior chest radiograph of a young patient who presented to the emergency
department (ED) with cough and malaise. The radiograph shows a classic posterior segment right upper lobe density
consistent with active tuberculosis. This woman was admitted to isolation and started empirically on a 4-drug regimen in the
ED. Tuberculosis was confirmed on sputum testing. Image courtesy of Remote Medicine (remotemedicine.org).
Background
Tuberculosis (TB), a multisystemic disease with myriad presentations and
manifestations, is the most common cause of infectious disease–related mortality
worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that 2 billion
people have latent TB and that globally, in 2009, the disease killed 1.7 million
people.
[9]
(See Epidemiology.)
[10]
Although TB rates are decreasing in the United States, the disease is becoming
more common in many parts of the world. In addition, the prevalence of drug-
resistant TB is also increasing worldwide. Coinfection with the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has been an important factor in the emergence and
spread of resistance.
[11]
(See Treatment.)
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a tubercle bacillus, is the causative agent of TB. It
belongs to a group of closely related organisms—including M africanum, M bovis,
and M microti —in the M tuberculosis complex. (See Etiology.) An image of the
bacterium is seen below.
Under a high magnification of 15549x, this scanning electron micrograph depicts
some of the ultrastructural details seen in the cell wall configuration of a number of Gram-positive Mycobacterium
tuberculosis bacteria. As an obligate aerobic organism, M. tuberculosis can only survive in an environment containing
oxygen. This bacterium ranges in length between 2-4 microns, with a width between 0.2-0.5 microns. Image courtesy of the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Dr. Ray Butler.
The lungs are the most common site for the development of TB; 85% of patients
with TB present with pulmonary complaints. Extrapulmonary TB can occur as part of
a primary or late, generalized infection. (See Pathophysiology and Presentation.)
The primary screening method for TB infection (active or latent) is the
Mantoux
tuberculin skin test
with purified protein derivative (PPD). An in vitro blood test based
on interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) with antigens specific for M tuberculosis
can also be used to screen for latent TB infection. Patients suspected of having TB
should submit sputum for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smear and culture. (See Workup.)
The usual treatment regimen for TB cases from fully susceptible M
tuberculosisisolates consists of 6 months of multidrug therapy. Empiric treatment
starts with a 4-drug regimen of isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and either
ethambutol or streptomycin; this therapy is subsequently adjusted according to
susceptibility testing results and toxicity. Pregnant women, children, HIV-infected
patients, and patients infected with drug-resistant strains require different regimens.
(See Treatment and Medication.)
Laws vary from state to state, but communicable-disease laws typically empower
public health officials to investigate suspected cases of TB, including potential
contacts of persons with TB. In addition, patients may be incarcerated for
noncompliance with therapy.
New TB treatments are being developed,
[12]
and new TB vaccines are under
investigation. (See Epidemiology and Treatment.)
Historical background
TB is an ancient disease. Signs of skeletal TB (
Pott disease
) have been found in
remains from Europe from Neolithic times (8000 BCE), ancient Egypt (1000 BCE),
and the pre-Columbian New World. TB was recognized as a contagious disease by
the time of Hippocrates (400 BCE), when it was termed "phthisis" (Greek
from phthinein, to waste away). In English, pulmonary TB was long known by the
term “consumption.” German physician Robert Koch discovered and isolated M
tuberculosis in 1882.
The worldwide incidence of TB increased with population density and urban
development, so that by the Industrial Revolution in Europe (1750), it was
responsible for more than 25% of adult deaths. In the early 20th century, TB was the
leading cause of death in the United States; during this period, however, the
incidence of TB began to decline because of various factors, including the use of
basic infection-control practices (eg, isolation).
Resurgence of TB
The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has been recording
detailed epidemiologic information on TB since 1953. Beginning in 1985, a
resurgence of TB was noted. The increase was observed primarily in ethnic
minorities and especially in persons infected with HIV. TB control programs were
revamped and strengthened across the United States, and rates again began to fall.
(See Epidemiology.)
As an AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)–related opportunistic infection,
TB is associated with HIV infections, with dual infections being frequently noted.
Globally, coinfection with HIV is highest in South Africa, India, and Nigeria. Persons
with AIDS are 20-40 times more likely than immunocompetent persons to develop
active TB.
[13]
Correspondingly, TB is the leading cause of mortality among persons
infected with HIV.
[14]
Worldwide, TB is most common in Africa, the West Pacific, and Eastern Europe.
These regions are plagued with factors that contribute to the spread of TB, including
the presence of limited resources, HIV infection, and multidrug-resistant (MDR) TB.
(See Epidemiology.)
Drug-resistant TB
MDR-TB is defined as resistance to isoniazid and rifampin, which are the 2 most
effective first-line drugs for TB. In 2006, an international survey found that 20% of M
tuberculosis isolates were MDR.
[14]
A rare type of MDR-TB, called extensively drug-
resistant TB (XDR-TB), is resistant to isoniazid, rifampin, any fluoroquinolone, and at
least one of 3 injectable second-line drugs (ie, amikacin, kanamycin, or
capreomycin).
[9]
XDR-TB resistant to all anti-TB drugs tested has been reported in
Italy, Iran, and India.
[15]
Multiple factors contribute to the drug resistance of M tuberculosis, including
incomplete and inadequate treatment or adherence to treatment, logistical issues,
virulence of the organism, multidrug transporters, host genetic factors, and HIV
infection. A study from South Africa found high genotypic diversity and geographic
distribution of XDR-TB isolates, suggesting that acquisition of resistance, rather than
transmission, accounts for between 63% and 75% of XDR-TB cases.
[16]
Statistics
In a 2008 report by the WHO, the proportion of TB cases in which the patient was
resistant to at least 1 antituberculosis drug varied widely among different regions of
the world, ranging from 0% to over 50%; the proportion of MDR-TB cases ranged
from 0% to over 20%. The WHO calculated that the global population-weighted
proportion of MDR-TB was 2.9% in new TB cases, 15.3% in previously treated
patients, and 5.3% in all TB cases.
[17]
In the United States, the percentage of MDR-TB cases has increased slowly, from
0.9% of the total number of reported TB cases in 2008 to 1.3% of cases in 2011.
Although the percentage of US-born patients with primary MDR-TB has remained
below 1% since 1997, the proportion of cases in which the patient was foreign born
increased from 25.3% in 1993 to 82.7% in 2011.
[18]
XDR-TB is becoming increasingly significant.
[17]
According to the US National TB
Surveillance System (NTSS), between 1993 and 2006 a total of 49 cases (3% of
evaluable MDR-TB cases) met the revised case definition for XDR-TB. The largest
number of XDR-TB cases was found in New York City and California.
Cure rate
The cure rate in persons with MDR-TB is 50-60%, compared with 95-97% for
persons with drug-susceptible TB.
[14]
The estimated cure rate for XDR-TB is 30-50%.
[9]
In people who are also infected with HIV, MDR-TB and XDR-TB often produce
fulminant and fatal disease; time from TB exposure to death averages 2-7 months.
In addition, these cases are highly infectious, with conversion rates of as much as
50% in exposed health-care workers.
Global surveillance and treatment of TB
As previously stated, multidrug resistance has been driven by poor compliance with
TB therapies , resulting in difficulties in controlling the disease. Consequently, a
threat of global pandemic occurred in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Reacting to
these signals, the WHO developed a plan to try to identify 70% of the world's cases
of TB and to completely treat at least 85% of these cases by the year 2000.
Out of these goals were born major TB surveillance programs and the concept of
directly observed therapy (DOT), which requires a third party to witness compliance
with pharmacotherapy. With worldwide efforts, global detection of smear-positive
cases rose from 11% (1991) to 45% (2003), with 71-89% of those cases undergoing
complete treatment.
Approach to TB in the emergency department
Despite the importance of early isolation of patients with active TB, a standardized
triage protocol with acceptable sensitivities has yet to be developed.
[19]
Moran et al
demonstrated that among patients with active TB in the emergency department
(ED), TB was often unsuspected, and isolation measures were not used.
[20]
The
difficulty in establishing such a protocol only highlights the importance of the
emergency physician’s role in the prompt identification and isolation of active TB.
A large percentage of ED patients are at increased risk for having active TB,
including homeless/shelter-dwelling patients, travelers from endemic areas,
immunocompromised patients, health-care workers, and incarcerated patients.
Therefore, emergency physicians must consider the management and treatment of
TB as a critical public health measure in the prevention of a new epidemic.
[21]
For high-risk cases, prehospital workers can assist in identifying household contacts
who may also be infected or who may be at high risk of becoming infected.
Prehospital workers should be aware that any case of active TB in a young child
indicates disease in 1 or more adults with close contact, usually within the same
household. TB in a child is a sentinel event indicating recent transmission.
Extrapulmonary involvement occurs in one fifth of all TB cases; 60% of patients with
extrapulmonary manifestations of TB have no evidence of pulmonary infection on
chest radiographs or in sputum cultures.
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