Parenchymal consolidation in primary pulmonary tuberculosis
Parenchymal consolidation may be observed. Although consolidation may occur in
any segment or lobe or in multiple segments or lobes, the disease has a predilection
for the lower lobes, for the middle lobe and lingula, and for the anterior segments of
the upper lobes.
Airspace consolidation tends to be homogeneous, with ill-defined margins. If the
consolidation abuts a fissure, a well-defined margin may be identified. Cavitation
within parenchymal opacity is distinctly uncommon in primary infection. As the host
immune response continues, healing begins. Caseous necrosis occurs centrally
within the lung parenchymal opacity, decreasing its size.
The lung opacity tends to become rounded with healing, and it continues to shrink
until only a small nodule remains. Subsequently, the nodule may become calcified or
ossified, resulting in a calcified granuloma. Note that although a granuloma may
calcify, this does not necessarily reflect an absence of bacilli. The organisms may
remain quiescent within this nodule, serving as a possible source for reactivation of
disease.
Lymphadenopathy in primary pulmonary tuberculosis
Lymphadenopathy is a common manifestation of primary pulmonary tuberculosis.
The presence of hilar and mediastinal lymphadenopathy may distinguish primary
from postprimary tuberculosis, because lymphadenopathy is conspicuously absent
in postprimary tuberculosis. Lymphadenopathy may be symptomatic if it secondarily
involves the airways.
Lymphadenopathy without a parenchymal opacity may occur as the only
manifestation of primary pulmonary tuberculosis. This is seen most often in the
population with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. (In adults with HIV
infection, adenopathy is common.)
As expected, adenopathy is most common in the ipsilateral hilar region. Hilar
lymphadenopathy is seen in approximately 60% of children with primary
tuberculosis, paratracheal adenopathy is seen in 40%, and subcarinal
lymphadenopathy is seen in 80%.
In adults, lymphadenopathy is unusual in an immunocompetent host but it does
occur, particularly in blacks and Asians.
The pattern of lymphadenopathy is indistinguishable from that of sarcoid or
lymphoma.
With an appropriate immune response or with adequate chemotherapy, enlarged
necrotic lymph nodes may diminish in size and commonly calcify. The presence of
calcified lymph node and a granuloma represents the Ranke complex.
Airway involvement in primary pulmonary tuberculosis
Airway involvement is frequently present in primary tuberculosis and may take any
of the following forms:
Airway compression by adjacent lymphadenopathy with resultant atelectasis
Mucosal infection with resultant ulceration and long-term stricture formation
Broncholithiasis, ie, extrinsic erosion of a bronchus by adjacent
lymphadenopathy, with extrusion of calcified material into the bronchus
Endobronchial spread of infection
Bronchiectasis
Atelectasis is most notable within the anterior segments of the upper lobes and the
medial segment of the middle lobe. Atelectasis may resolve as lymphadenopathy
regresses with host response. A sudden resolution of atelectasis may represent
perforation of an infected lymph node into the airway, which relieves the bronchial
obstruction.
A possible long-term sequela of infection is tracheobronchial stenosis. The airways
may be involved by tuberculosis in a variety of ways, including direct mucosal
involvement from infected sputum, direct extension from perforating
lymphadenopathy or adjacent parenchymal infection, and hematogenous or
lymphatic drainage.
The endobronchial spread of infection may be seen with tuberculous
tracheobronchial disease. Bacilli from the infected airways disseminate into more
distal bronchi and bronchioles and subsequently enter the alveoli, where they
become deposited. The resultant radiographic appearance is one of small ill-defined
acinar shadows and small nodules.
Endobronchial tuberculosis may lead to bronchiectasis, either from bronchial
stenosis or secondary to traction from fibrosis. Bronchiectasis is more frequently
seen in postprimary tuberculosis (see Postprimary tuberculosis below).
Pleural involvement in primary pulmonary tuberculosis
Pleural involvement is uncommon in children with primary tuberculosis, occurring in
approximately 10% of these patients. Pleural involvement is seen more frequently in
adults with primary pulmonary tuberculosis, and it is even more frequently identified
in postprimary tuberculosis.
Postprimary pulmonary tuberculosis
The findings of reactivation tuberculosis typically become radiographically apparent
within 2 years of the initial infection.
[12]
Pleural effusions develop if the infection
remains untreated. Tuberculous empyema is a much less common finding.
Parenchymal manifestations of postprimary pulmonary tuberculosis
Postprimary tuberculosis may have any of a number of parenchymal manifestations.
Patchy or confluent airspace opacities are opacities that involve the apical and
posterior segments of the upper lobes and the superior segments of the lower lobes.
In postprimary tuberculosis, cavitary disease is secondary to caseous necrosis
within the opacity.
[13]
The debris from the lesion is expelled via the tracheobronchial
tree with which the cavity is in communication. The cavities, similar to airspace
opacities in reactivation tuberculosis, are commonly within the upper lung zones.
The cavities demonstrate a thick outer wall with a smooth inner contour. Air-fluid
levels may be present. Superinfection by Aspergillus organisms may occur, leading
to a mycetoma.
Tuberculomas are rounded discrete nodules that are known to harbor bacilli. They
may be present in primary or postprimary tuberculosis and radiographically appear
as discrete nodules, typically within the upper lobes. Tuberculomas may calcify.
Satellite lesions (ie, small discrete nodules in the vicinity of the tuberculoma) are
present in as many as 90% of patients.
Endobronchial spread of infection with acinar opacities occurs as a consequence of
infected material passing into the tracheobronchial tree from an infected portion of
the lung. The organisms pass via the airways into previously uninvolved portions of
the lung. The radiographic appearance is one of widespread ill-defined acinar
shadows. Foci may become confluent and mimic bacterial pneumonia. Spread from
the upper lobes to the lower lobes is common and called the upstairs-downstairs
pattern.
Pulmonary miliary tuberculosis is a consequence of hematogenous spread of
organisms to the pulmonary parenchyma. Radiographically, miliary spread can be
recognized by circumscribed nodules less than 1-2 mm in diameter located diffusely
throughout both lungs.
Lymphadenopathy in postprimary pulmonary tuberculosis
In contrast to primary tuberculosis, lymphadenopathy is notably absent in patients
with postprimary tuberculosis, with the exception of patients with HIV or AIDS.
Airway involvement in postprimary pulmonary tuberculosis
Tracheobronchial stenosis may not be directly visualized on conventional chest
radiographs. Airway stenosis may result in atelectasis in the segments of the lung
supplied by that bronchus.
Bronchiectasis may be visualized on radiographs as dilated air-containing
structures, with a tram-track appearance representing the parallel walls of the dilated
airway. Dilated bronchi may be irregular in caliber and varicoid in appearance or
may be cystic. Traction bronchiectasis may occur as well, as a consequence of
fibrosis.
Pleural involvement in postprimary pulmonary tuberculosis
Pleural involvement is seen more commonly in postprimary tuberculosis than in
primary infection. Pleural effusions may occur and may progress to empyema. An
empyema may require emergent surgical intervention because the infection is
maintained within a closed space and because it may result in rapid destruction of
surrounding structures (eg, lung parenchyma, osseous structures of the thorax).
If infection extends from the pleural space to involve the chest wall, it is called
empyema necessitans. Osseous destruction and, possibly, air within subcutaneous
tissues may be identified radiographically, or the empyema may present as a
palpable soft-tissue mass.
Degree of confidence
The imaging features of primary tuberculosis are nonspecific, and they may mimic
those of other infectious processes. A finding that differentiates primary tuberculosis
from other infectious processes is lymphadenopathy, which is typically absent in
bacterial pneumonia.
Postprimary tuberculosis may be recognized more readily with the presence of
fibrocavitary disease and a history of prior tuberculosis exposure or infection.
Radiologic findings of postprimary tuberculosis are highly suggestive of, but not
pathognomonic for, the disease. Inactive disease cannot be established without prior
radiographs, regardless of the pattern.
False positives/negatives
As many as 15% of conventional chest radiographs may be normal in primary
tuberculosis. In the immunocompromised population, lymphadenopathy occasionally
may occur in isolation, and it may not be detected on conventional radiographs.
Additional imaging with CT is often required, because CT is more sensitive in
depicting lymphadenopathy.
Computed Tomography
The CT scan characteristics of primary and postprimary tuberculosis are displayed
in the images below.
CT scan in a young patient, obtained with the pulmonary window setting,
demonstrates consolidation in the right upper lobe, ground-glass opacities in the right lower lobe, and a pleural effusion on
the right side. This patient has extensive tuberculous pneumonia and is immunocompromised.
A middle-aged man presents with a cough and fever lasting several weeks. CT scan
obtained with the pulmonary window setting in the right upper lobe shows an irregular, thick-walled cavity with some
increased markings around it. A nearby nodule is also shown.
CT scan obtained with
pulmonary window setting in the right middle lobe (same patient as in the previous image) shows a focal area of
consolidation with what may be tiny nodules. This patient has primary progressive tuberculosis with radiographic
manifestations of mediastinal adenopathy, cavitary process, and endobronchial spread that occurs over a short period. He
had a history of alcohol abuse.
Primary pulmonary tuberculosis
CT scanning helps confirm the presence of an ill-defined parenchymal infiltrate, as
well as lymphadenopathy.
[14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]
CT is the examination of choice for evaluating lymphadenopathy and involvement of
the tracheobronchial tree. Lymphadenopathy causing bronchial compression can be
identified, and airway compromise can be monitored during chemotherapy. CT
scans may demonstrate enlarged lymph nodes typically measuring more than 2 cm.
Lymph nodes demonstrate central hypoattenuation with peripheral rim enhancement
with the administration of contrast material. This appearance reflects central
necrosis within the node. Broncholiths may be identified in rare cases.
Morphologically, the stenoses in active disease are areas of irregular luminal
narrowing with circumferential wall thickening. Associated mediastinitis and even
mediastinal abscesses may be present. Small pleural effusions are detected more
readily on CT scans than on other images. Contrast enhancement may be useful in
identifying evolution into an empyema.
Postprimary pulmonary tuberculosis
CT scans may be helpful in evaluating parenchymal involvement, satellite lesions,
bronchogenic spread of infection, and miliary disease.
Cavitation is best demonstrated on CT scans. The outer wall of the cavity tends to
be thick walled and irregular, whereas the inner wall tends to be smooth. An air-fluid
level may be identified. The connection of the cavity to the airway may be visualized.
Complications of cavitary disease may become apparent with mycetoma formation,
which appears as an intraluminal collection of material with a crescent of
surrounding air. Changes in patient positioning demonstrate a change in the position
of the mycetoma relative to the cavity.
Tuberculomas can be identified on CT scans as rounded nodules that usually have
surrounding associated satellite lesions. The bronchogenic spread of tuberculosis is
recognized on CT scans by the presence of acinar shadows and nodules of varying
sizes in a peribronchial distribution. The lesions are seen throughout both lungs.
Miliary tuberculosis is characterized by randomly distributed tiny nodules (1-2 mm),
which tend to be smooth and well marginated. Calcification is notably absent; this
observation may aid in differentiating tuberculosis from metastatic diseases such as
thyroid carcinoma.
CT scans may aid in the evaluation of uncommon complications of miliary
tuberculosis, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and pulmonary
hemorrhage resulting from disseminated intravascular coagulopathy. Both ARDS
and pulmonary hemorrhage may manifest as alveolar filling in a background of
miliary nodules.
Airway involvement
CT scanning is the examination of choice for evaluating the tracheobronchial tree.
Lymphadenopathy is a feature of primary infection; however, calcified lymph nodes
may cause persistent extrinsic compression on the bronchi.
Bronchial stenosis is more common in postprimary disease than in primary
tuberculosis. In fibrocavitary tuberculosis, the proximal bronchi are more typically
involved than the peripheral airways. Variable areas of stenosis are demonstrated.
Wall thickening tends to be less marked than in primary tuberculosis.
[21]
Bronchiectasis is a well-known sequela of postprimary disease. Bronchiectasis
tends to occur in the upper lobes and often manifests as traction bronchiectasis on
the basis of fibrotic disease with subsequent traction on the airways. Recurrent
infections and hemoptysis may result from traction bronchiectasis.
Pleural involvement
Empyema is visualized on contrast-enhanced CT scans with enhancement of the
parietal and visceral pleurae. They may demonstrate enhancing septa within the
pleural fluid collections. The pleural fluid collections are characterized by low
attenuation; however, they do not have attenuation values consistent with simple
fluid. Empyemas demonstrate the so-called split pleura sign. This sign consists of
the pleural fluid collection tracking between the abnormally enhancing parietal and
visceral pleura.
Spontaneous pneumothorax is an uncommon complication of disease; it may be
secondary to peripherally located lesions. Involvement of the pericardium and spine
may be demonstrated on CT images.
Degree of confidence
CT is sensitive in the identification of pulmonary parenchymal and pleural disease.
The pattern of disease and distribution of nodules is delineated clearly by using
modern CT techniques. Lymphadenopathy may be diagnosed with a high degree of
confidence, even without the use of intravenous contrast material.
Pericardial disease can be imaged with CT scanning or MRI, although calcification
related to prior tuberculous pericarditis is more readily apparent on CT images.
Osseous involvement is well delineated on CT scans; however, MRI is often
necessary to evaluate the disk and the spinal canal.
Association Between Tuberculin Skin Test
Result and Clinical Presentation of
Tuberculosis Disease
Sara C Auld, Eleanor S Click, Charles M Heilig, Roque Miramontes, Kevin P Cain,
Gregory P Bisson, William R Mac Kenzie
BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13(460)
Abstract
Background: The tuberculin skin test (TST) is used to test for latent tuberculosis
(TB) infection and support the diagnosis of active TB. However, little is known about
the relationship between the TST result and the clinical presentation of TB disease.
Methods: We analyzed US TB surveillance data, 1993–2010, and used
multinomial logistic regression to calculate the association between TST result (0–4
mm [negative], 5–9 mm, 10–14 mm, and ≥ 15 mm) and clinical presentation of
disease (miliary, combined pulmonary and extrapulmonary, extrapulmonary only,
non-cavitary pulmonary, and cavitary pulmonary). For persons with pulmonary
disease, multivariate logistic regression was used to calculate the odds of having
acid-fast bacilli (AFB) positive sputum.
Results: There were 64,238 persons with culture-confirmed TB included in the
analysis, which was stratified by HIV status and birthplace (US- vs. foreign-born).
Persons with a TST ≥ 15 mm were less likely to have miliary or combined pulmonary
and extrapulmonary disease, but more likely to have cavitary pulmonary disease
than non-cavitary pulmonary disease. Persons with non-cavitary pulmonary disease
with a negative TST were significantly more likely to have AFB positive sputum.
Conclusions: Clinical presentation of TB disease differed according to TST result
and persons with a negative TST were more likely to have disseminated disease
(i.e., miliary or combined pulmonary and extrapulmonary). Further study of the TST
result may improve our understanding of the host-pathogen relationship in TB
disease.
Background
The tuberculin skin test (TST) is primarily used to identify latent tuberculosis (TB)
infection in persons who may be at risk of progression to active disease and to
support the diagnosis of active TB disease.
[1,2]
A positive TST result, consisting of
measurable skin induration after the injection of tuberculin purified protein derivative,
is part of a delayed-type hypersensitivity response of host immune system memory
T cells sensitized by prior mycobacterial exposure.
[3]
However, the TST is an
imperfect marker of TB infection and previous reports indicate that 10–25% of
persons with active TB disease have a negative TST result.
[1,4,5]
At the same time, it is well recognized that the host immune system is an important
determinant of the clinical presentation of active TB disease, and patients with an
immature or suppressed immune system often have faster disease progression and
more disseminated disease.
[6–10]
Likewise, persons with genetic mutations in the
interferon-gamma or interleukin-12 cytokine pathways can present with widely
disseminated TB disease.
[11,12]
At the other end of the spectrum, patients with a
recovering immune system, such as persons with HIV who are initiating antiretroviral
therapy or persons stopping anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy, can have an
overexuberant immune response to TB infection characterized by extensive cavitary
lung lesions and necrotic lymph nodes.
[13]
While TST reactivity is recognized to be an indicator of TB infection following
exposure to persons with TB disease and has been widely studied in the context of
latent TB infection,
[14]
we are not aware of any large studies that describe the pattern
of TST results among persons with different clinical presentations of active TB
disease. Understanding the association between the TST and clinical manifestations
of TB disease may provide insight into the host-pathogen relationship and how
factors such as HIV infection may influence that relationship. We analyzed national
surveillance data from the United States to explore whether the TST result correlates
with differences in the clinical presentation of active TB among a large cohort of
persons with bacteriologically-confirmed TB disease.
Methods
We analyzed reports of persons with culture-confirmed TB in the National
Tuberculosis Surveillance System of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) during January 1, 1993 through December 31, 2010. The analysis included
persons with a documented TST result, anatomical site of disease, HIV status, and
birthplace (US- or foreign-born). Cases of pulmonary TB without a chest radiograph
result were excluded to allow for evaluation of the association between radiograph
findings and TST result. Reports from California were also excluded because HIV
status was not routinely reported from that jurisdiction prior to 2011.
[15]
Based on CDC guidelines for the classification of TST reactions, the TST result was
divided into categories of 0–4 mm, 5–9 mm, 10–14 mm, and ≥ 15 mm.
[14]
A TST
result of 0–4 mm was considered negative and a result ≥ 5 mm was considered
positive. Pearson's chi-square statistic was used to assess differences in the
distribution of TST results for sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Clinical
presentation of disease was defined as one of the following mutually exclusive
categories: miliary disease, combined pulmonary and extrapulmonary disease,
extrapulmonary only disease, and pulmonary only disease which was further divided
into non-cavitary pulmonary disease and cavitary pulmonary disease. A designation
of miliary disease was based on either clinical impression or a miliary radiographic
pattern on either chest radiograph or CT scan.
Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the association between TST
result category and clinical presentation of disease category and to calculate odds
ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Non-cavitary pulmonary disease was the
largest clinical presentation category and was used as the referent outcome
category. A TST of 0–4 mm (negative) was used as the referent category for TST
result. Persons with non-cavitary pulmonary disease with a TST of 0–4 mm served
as the comparison group to calculate odds ratios for each of the respective clinical
presentation/TST result category combinations (e.g., cavitary pulmonary disease
with TST ≥ 15 mm or miliary disease with TST 10–14 mm were all compared to non-
cavitary pulmonary disease with a TST of 0–4 mm). We examined the following
covariates for effect modification or confounding: sex, age, race and ethnicity (self-
designated), HIV status, birthplace, incarceration at the time of diagnosis,
homelessness in the 12 months prior to diagnosis, and excessive alcohol or illicit
drug use in the 12 months prior to diagnosis. Finally, we conducted an additional
analysis restricted to persons with exclusively pulmonary disease who had a
documented sputum smear result at baseline. Multivariate logistic regression was
used to calculate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals to quantify the odds of
having a positive sputum smear (vs. negative) result for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) for
each TST category (TST 0–4 mm referent).
As data were collected as part of routine TB surveillance by the CDC, this analysis
was not considered research involving human subjects, and institutional review
board approval was not required.
Results
Distribution of TST Results
During 1993 through 2010, there were 308,740 cases of tuberculosis reported in the
United States, of which 244,413 (79%) were culture-confirmed (Figure 1). Of these
cases, 125,026 (51%) had a TST result reported (see Additional file 1, in the online
supplement for a comparison of sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of
persons with and without a TST result reported, which shows significant differences
between persons with and without TST results for all characteristics) of which 64,238
persons with culture-confirmed TB were eligible for inclusion in the analysis. Among
these persons, 15.9% had a TST of 0–4 mm (negative), 2.6% had a TST of 5–9 mm,
21.9% had a TST of 10–14 mm, and 59.7% had a TST ≥ 15 mm (). The proportion of
persons with a negative TST was greater in those with age > 45 years, male sex,
non-Hispanic white race/ethnicity, who were born in the US, infected with HIV, or
who had a positive sputum smear result for AFB at baseline. The distribution of TST
results was significantly different among persons with and without HIV: 12.5% of
persons without HIV had a negative TST while 38.2% of persons with HIV had a
negative TST. Persons with miliary disease and combined pulmonary and
extrapulmonary disease also had high rates of TST negativity, 36.7% and 22.9%,
respectively, whereas persons with extrapulmonary only, or cavitary pulmonary
disease had lower rates of a negative TST with 13.8% and 13.0%, respectively. The
distributions of TST results within each sociodemographic and clinical characteristic
comparison were statistically significant with a P-value < 0.001.
Table 1. Tuberculin skin test (TST) result and characteristics of selected culture-
confirmed TB cases reported in the United States, 1993–2010 (N = 64,238)
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