Azərbaycan Respublikası “ÇAĞ” Öyrətim İşlətmələri

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your mind may be on the text level whilst another is elsewhere. Translation is pri-
marily the occupation in which you have to be thinking of several things at the same 
time. Yu should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level. Whether 
a text is technical or literary, you have to make up your mind, summarily and conti-
nuously, what it is about. For each sentence, when it is not clear, when there is an 
ambiguity, when the writing is abstract or figurative you have to ask yourself: what 
is happening here? And why? for what reason, on what grounds, for what purpose? 
can you see it in your mind?if you cannot, you have to supplement the linguistic level 
the text with the referential, the factual level with the necessary additional information 
from this level of reality, the fact of the matter. 
So, translator works continuously on two levels, the real and the linguistic,life 
and language,reference and sense,but you write you compose on the linguistic level, 
where your job is to achive the greatest possible correspondence, referentially and 
sentences of the source language text. However tempting it is to remain on that 
simpler, usually simplified level of reality(the message and its function)you have 
force yourself back, into the particularities of the source language meaning. Beyond 
the second factual level of translating, there is third, generalized, level linking the 
first and the second level,which you have to bear in mind.This is the cohesive 
level; it follows both the structure and the moods of the text:the structure throught 
the connective words (conjuction, repetitions, articles, general words, referential 
synonyms) linking the sentence,usually proceeding from known information 
(theme) to new information(rheme); proposition, opposition, continuation, conclusion 
or thesis, antithesis, synthesis. thus structure of text follows the train of thought, 
determiners say the direction in a text;ensure that there is a sequence of time,space 
and logic in the text.The second factor in the cohesive level is mood.Again,this can 
be shown as a dialectical factor moving between positive and neqative,emotive and 
neutral.It means tracing the thread of a text through its value –laden and value-free 
passages which may be expressed by objects or nouns,as well as adjectives or 
qualities. You have to spot the difference between positive and neutral in, say 
“appreciate and evaluate”, ”tidy and ordered”; ”passed away and deid”. These 
differences are often delicate, particularly near the center, where most language 
have words like fair, moderate, whose values cannot always be determined in the 
context. The third level, this attempt to follow the thought through the connectives 
and the feeling tone and the emotion through expressions is admittedly, only tentative, 
but it may determine the difference between a misleading translation and a good one. 
This cohesive is regulator it secures coherence, it adjusts emphasis. At this level, 
you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences,the formulation of the 
title,the tone of the conclusion. 
Another fundamental problem in this regard is the role of the reader. We now 
that certain texts can be perfectly meaningful to some readers and difficult or non-
translatable to others. There are people who experience modern experimental 
poetry as an insult. At another level, a professional text on medicine or mathematics 

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can be readily interpretable by a person with the proper background.T hus inter-
pretttability is not only a function of the text. Interpretability is not an absolute, 
unchangeable and permanent quality of a text but is affected by the relation of the 
text to aspecific receiver or category of receivers. Very often the receiver must have 
an  access to the situational context,either in its original form in connection with 
the speech  act or in a sufficiently complete and accurate reconstruction.Lose rela-
tions exist between interpretability   and connexity.If we are to establish coherence 
relations between parts of a text, we must first interpret the text. We receive the 
text, we set up various hypotheses about its proper or best interpretation and on the 
basis of such interpretive hypotheses we then infer what relations there must be 
between parts of text, if that text is to convex. In this sense, text interpretation is a 
hermeneutic process: we must have a whole, a universe of discourse, before we can 
see how its parts fit together and coherent. 
The socio-cultural aspect of language use must be futher explored to see the 
inseparaple relationship between language and social meaning .Some fuctional and 
critical linguistic studies reveal the close interaction and dynamism of language 
users.In so doing,these demonstrate how dialectal relationships are maintained and 
how they are translated into socio-cultural structures and social practice (discource). 
Various rhetorical strategies of repetition,formal lexical-grammatical means, meto-
nymy, metaphor, the names of person,place,literature,brand names are creatively 
crafted and widely employed within the text arouse more attention of the receiver, 
to initiate cognitive poetic effects and somehow literary,to perform diverse com-
municative functions. They persuade the receiver to recognize the prominent inter-
cultural values and furthermore construct the identity of cultural pluralism. It is 
important to remember that texts operate within a particular culture, and operate 
within the values systems of that culture. 
Thus the cognitive approach to text is based on inseparaple relations between 
language,cross-culture and academic knowledge.Text is viewed as”the dialogue of 
cultures”in the general context of intercultural communication.Intercultural com-
munication is reflected in language  choice as a means of constructig text,but also 
in the knowledge of its functioning in a social context which developes cognitive 
skills needed to understand discourse realia. 
To acquire intercultural competences means to pay attention to certain words, 
phrases and to find the meaning they convey.A sender then defines specific concepts 
in a foreign language in order to solve differences in communicative style.But it 
isn’t enough merely to know the meaning of words,their typical collactions,or even 
the contexts in which they are most frequently used.The primary use of language is 
for communication,and so a speaker must also know what people do with words, 
what they use them for.Why they are using the language is at least as important as 
their actual words. It also shows us how to see what words and combination of 
words are used to express such common functions as suggesting, ordering, apologizing, 
criticizing, encouraging and complimenting. It also shows us how to use the language 

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for discourse purposes such as emphasizing, focusing, downplaying, etc. So by 
looking at a different socio-culture domains and comparing them with his or her own 
culture a speaker gets closer to the culture of foreign language. When the com-
plexties of intercultural communication are analyzed and acknowledged, its signi-
fycance becomes a formidable challenge.It is only in recent decades that linguistics 
have begun to think about how they can extend their understanding of communi-
cation beyond the emphasis on should help us to find out how the conceptual picture 
of the world,inherent in each language,is formed. 
In general terms,sociolinguistics deals with the interrelationships between lan-
guage and society.It has strong connections to anthropology through the crucial 
role that language plays in the organization of social groups and institutions. 
In the study of world’s cultures,it has become clear that different groups not only 
have different languages,they have different world views which are reflected in their 
languages.In the sense that language reflects culture,this is a very important obser-
vation and existence of different world views should not be ignored when different 
languages and different discourses are studied. 
 
USING INFORMATIONS FROM: 
1.  www.google.com. 
2.  Dünya ədəbiyyatı dərgisi. 
3.  ADU-nin bəzi materiallarindan. 
 
 
CULTURE AND TRANSLATION 
Sexavet NECEFOV 
Qafqaz University Translation and Interpretation Department 
V Course student 
 
We define culture as the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a 
community that uses a particular language as its means of expression. More speci-
fically, we distinguish cultural from universal and personal language. Die , live, star, 
swim, and even almost virtually ubiquitous artifacts like  mirror and table are uni-
versals – usually there is no translation problem there. Monsoon steppe, dacha, 
tagliatelle are cultural words – there will be translation problem unless there is cul-
tural overlap between the source and the target language. Universal words such as 
breakfast, embrace, pile, often cover the universal function, but not the cultural 
description of the referent. 
However dialect words are not cultural words if they designate universals (e.g., 
loch, moors), any more than the notorious pain, vin, Gemütlichkeit, privacy, insou-
ciance, which are admittedly overladen with cultural connotations. 

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Geographical features can be normally distinguished from other cultural terms 
in that they are usually value-free, politically and commercially. Nevertheless, their 
diffusion depends on the importance of their country of origin as well as their 
degree of specificity.Many countries have local words for plains – steppes, tundras,  
pampas, savannahs, llanos, campos, pdramos, bush, veld – all with strong elements 
of local colour. Their familiarity is a function of the importance and geographical or 
political proximity of their countries. All these words would normally be transferred, 
with th addition of a brief culture-free third term where necessary in the next. 
MATERIAL CULTURE 
Food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of national culture; 
food terms are subject to the widest variety of translation procedures. Various setting: 
menus – straight, multilingual, glossed, cookbooks, food guides; tourist brochures; 
journalism increasingly contain foreign food terms. In principle, one can recommend 
translation for words with recognized one-to-one equivalents and transference, plus 
a neutral term, for the rest (e.g., the pasta dish - cannelloni)- for the general readership. 
Traditionally, upper- class men’s clothes are English and woman’s French (note 
slip, I polloi (the plebs); les gens du commun; laplebe; the flowerjeans (which is an 
internationalism, and an American symbol like coke) kaftan, jubbah. 
Clothes as cultural terms may be sufficiently explaned for TL general readers if 
the generic noun or classifier is added e.g., shintigin trousers or basque skirt, or 
again, if the particular is of no interest, the generic word can simply replace it. 
SOCIAL CULTURE 
In considering social culture one has to distinguish between denotative and 
connotative problems of translation. Thus charcuterie, droguerie, patisserie, chapellerie, 
chocolaterie,Konditori hardly exist in Anglophone countries.There is rarely a trans-
lation problem, since the words can be transferred, have approximate one-to-one 
translation or can be functionally defined, pork-butcher, hardware, cake or hat or 
chocolate shop, cake shop with café. As a translation problem, this contrasts with the 
connotative difficulties of wprds like: the people; the common people; the masses; 
the working class la classe ouvriere; the proletariat; the working classes; the hoi 
polloi (the plebs); les gens du commun; laplebe; the lower ordes; classes Inferieures. 
Note that archaisms such as the last expressions can still be used ironically, or 
humorously. 
The obvious cultural words that denote leisure activities in Europe are the 
national games with their lexical sets: cricket, bull-fighting, boule, petanque, 
hockey. 
SOCIAL ORGANISATION – POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIV 
The political and social life of a country is reflected in its institutional terms. 
Where the title of a head of state (Present, Prime Minister, King) or the name of a 
parliament (Assemblee Nationale, Camera dei Deputati or Senate) are transparent, 

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that is made up of international or easily translated morphemes, they are through-
translated (National Assembly, Chamber of Deputies). Where the name of a par-
liament is not readily translatable (Bundestag; Storting (Norway); Sejm (Poland); 
Riksdag (Sweden); Eduskunta (Finland); Knesset (Israel), it has a recognized 
official translation for administrative documents (e.g., German Federal Parliament 
for Bundestag, Council of Constituent States for Bundesrat) but is often transferred 
for an educated readership). 
Names of ministries are usually literally translated, provided they are appro-
priately descriptive. Therefore Treasure becomes Finance Ministry, Home Office, 
Ministry of the Interior; attorney-general, chief justice, or the appropriate cultural 
equivalent; Defence Ministry, Ministry of National Defence. Translations such as 
Social Domain and Exchange Domain (Guinea) should be replaced by Social 
Affairs and Trade. 
HISTORICAL TERMS 
Up to now I have been discussing the translation of modern institutional terms. 
In the case of historical institutional terms, say, procureur-general, le Grand Siecle, 
I’Ancien Regime, Siecle des Lumieres, Anschluss, Kulturkampf, intendant, spravnik, 
zemsivo, obshchina, duma, the first principle is not to translate them, whether the 
translation makes sense (is transparent) or not (is opaque), unless they have 
generally accepted translations. 
INTERNATIONAL TERMS 
International institutional terms usually have recognized translations which are 
in fact through-translations, and are now generally known by their acronyms; thus 
WHO, OMS (Organisation Mondiale de la Sante),WGO (Weltgesundheitsorgani-
sation); ILO, BIT (Breau International du Travail), IAA (Internationales Arbeit-
samt). 
In other cases, the English acronym prevails and becomes a quasi-internatio-
nalism, not always resisted in French (UNESCO, FAO, UNRRA, UNICEF). 
 
 
THE HISTORY OF TRANSLATION 
Türkan CABBAROVA 
Qafqaz University Translation and Interpretation Department 
II Course student 
 
When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories 
and names that emerged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by 
specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to 
another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not 

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the same as those in the east world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led 
to the birth of particular theories. So, what are the main changes that marked trans-
lation history? 
Translation has played a role throughout history any time there has been an 
intersection of two cultures and languages. And each time one culture has produced 
a written text, translators serve as the bridge that allows literate members of one 
culture to be exposed to the written material the other has produced. 
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story 
of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descen-
dants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of 
Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits 
God's will, they decided to challenge. His authority and build a tower that could 
reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their 
wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to 
speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them 
allover the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through di-
version, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of 
translation. 
Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the 
domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look 
for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history. Researchers 
mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that 
translating is a Roman invention Cicero and Horace were the first theorists who 
distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. 
Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of 
translation up to the twentieth century. 
Needless to say that the invention of printing techniques in the fifteenth century 
developed the field of translation and helped in the appearance of early theorists. For 
instance, Etienne Dolet whose heretic mistranslation of one of Plato's dialogues, 
the phrase "rien du tout" (nothing at all) that showed his disbelief in immortality, 
led to his execution. 
The seventeenth century knew the birth of many influential theorists such as Sir 
John Denhom (1615-69), Abraham Cowley (1618-67), John Dryden (1631-1700), 
who was famous for his distinction between three types of translation; metaphrase, 
paraphrase and, imitation, and Alexander Pope (1688-1744) 
In the eighteenth century the translator was compared to an artist with a moral 
duty both to the work of the original author and to the receiver. Moreover, with the 
enhancement of new theories and volumes on translation process, the study of 
translation started to be systematic. The nineteenth century was characterized by 
two conflicting tendencies; the first considered translation as a category of thought 
and saw the translator as a creative genius, who enriches the literature and language 

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into which he is translating, while the second saw him through the mechanical 
function of making a text or an author known (McGuire). 
This period of the nineteenth century knew also the enhancement of Roman-
ticism, the fact that led to the birth of many theories and translations in the domain of 
literature, especially poetic translation. An example of these translations is the one 
used by Edward Fitzgerald (1809-1863) for Rubaiyat Omar Al-Khayyam (1858). 
In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an 
important course in language teaching and learning at schools. What adds to its 
value is the creation of a variety of methods and models of translation. For instantce, 
the grammar-translation method studies the grammatical rules and structures of 
foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of 
translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word 
substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different socie-
ties  hink. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic 
method and the dynamic equivalent method. 
Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which 
focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model 
includes a variety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model 
and models of translation quality assessments that in turn provide us with many 
models such as those of Riess, Wilss, Koller, House, North and Hulst. 
The period is also characterized by pragmatic and systematic approach to the 
study of translation. The most famous writings and figures that characterize the 
twenties are those of Jean-Paul Vinay and Darbelnet, who worked on a stylistic 
comparative study of French and English, Alfred Malblanc , George Mounin, John 
C. Catford, Eugene Nida, who is affected by the Chomskyan generative grammar in 
his theories of translation, De Beaugrand who writes a lot about translation, and 
many others who worked and still work for the development of the domain. 
Additionally, the time of the prophet Mohamed (peace be upon him) is of para-
mount importance for translation history. The spread of Islam and the communi-
cation with non-Arabic speaking communities as Jews, Romans and others pushed 
the prophet to look for translators and to encourage the learning of foreign languages. 
One of the most famous translators of the time is Zaid Ibnu Thabet, who played a 
crucial role in translating letters sent by the prophet to foreign kings of Persia, 
Syria, Rome and Jews, and also letters sent by those kings to the prophet. 
Another era that knew significant changes in Arabic translation was related to 
the translation of the Holy Koran. According to Ben Chakroun, the early translators 
of the Koran focused on its meaning. Salman El Farisi, for instance, translated the 
meaning of Surat Al Fatiha for Persian Muslims, who didn't speak Arabic. Ben 
Chakroun states that Western libraries still preserve many translations of the 
Koran, and that some of them such as the Greek translation of the philosopher 
Naktis belong to the third century (BC). Besides, the Holy Koran received a special