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is balanced along an axis. The number of tissue layers formed during development, the presence or
absence of an internal body cavity, and other embryological development features all contribute to
animal classification.
Figure 87.
The phylogenetic tree of animals is based on morphological, fossil, and genetic
evidence.
Body Symmetry
Animals can have asymmetrical, radial, or bilateral shapes (Figure 88). Asymmetrical animals
lack pattern or symmetry; a sponge is an example of an asymmetrical animal (Figure 88a). A radial-
symmetric organism (Figure 88b) has a longitudinal (up-and-down) orientation: Any plane cut along
this axis produces approximately mirror-image halves. A sea anemone is
an example of an organism
with radial symmetry.
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Figure 88.
Animals have various types of body symmetry. The sponge (a) is asymmetrical with no
planes of symmetry, the sea anemone (b) has radial symmetry with
multiple planes of symmetry,
and the goat (c) has bilateral symmetry with one plane of symmetry.
Figure 88(c) depicts bilateral symmetry using a goat. The goat has upper and lower sides as
well, though they are not symmetrical. The animal is divided into roughly mirror-image right and left
sides by a vertical plane cut from front to back. Bilaterally symmetric animals have a "head" and
"tail" (anterior versus posterior), as well as a back and underside (dorsal versus
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