Laboratory works according to the sylabbus of the
subject “Material science”
.
127
1-
Laboratory Study of cast iron production technology.
127
2-
Laboratory Study of steelmaking technology.
131
3-
Laboratory Internal structure of metals and crystal lattices.
135
4
4-
Laboratory Determination of hardness of steels by carbon content.
Brinnel and Rockwell methods.
137
5-
Laboratory Processing of iron carbon state diagram.
143
6-
Laboratory Carbon steel structure.
148
7-
Laboratory Cast iron microstructure analysis.
153
APPENDIX
156
GLOSSARY
168
QUESTION LISTS
172
REFERENCES
175
5
EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS
6
LECTURES ACCORDING TO THE SYLABBUS OF THE SUBJECT
“MATERIAL SCIENCE”
LECTURE – 1. INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS SCIENCE.
1.1. Goals and objectives of subject.
1.2. Material science and engineering.
1.3. Types of materials.
1.4. Recent advances in materials science and technology and future
Trends.
1.5. Design & selection.
Keywords:
Metal alloys, non-metals, technical metals, crystalline substances, crystallization,
crystal lattice, nest, crystal lattice types, crystal center, properties of metals, physical
properties, mechanical properties, technological properties, hardness, Brinell,
Rockwell, alloy types.
The progress and development of the national economy cannot be imagined
without the development of the machine-building industry. Metal is the basis of
mechanical engineering and industry.
iron and its alloys. hard to do.
It is known that the details of any machines are made of steel, cast iron and other
materials.
Depending on the working conditions of the machine parts and the conditions of
the performed work, different requirements are imposed on them.
For example: some details stretch (hammers, springs) some to bending, some to
friction under heat conditions (cutters, gears) some parts work in acid, alkali, wet
conditions. For the details of the machine , it is necessary to choose such a material
that it is mature, light, cheap and accurate, while meeting the requirements.
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The science of structural materials technology is very important in solving such
complex engineering problems.
emerged as a separate science two centuries ago .
Among the scientists who founded science, Lomonosov MV, Anosov PP,
Mendeleev D. I, Chernov KK, Bendrass MA, Marten P, Thomas S and others
contributed to the development of science.
Currently, the main principles of the development of the national economy in
our republic are quality changes in machinery, increasing the production of the gross
product , improving its quality, improving the working conditions, mechanization and
automation of production processes, and the production of automatic lines that meet
the world's requirements. is to solve issues such as
The science of metal technology teaches the process of extracting ferrous metals,
non-ferrous metals and their alloys from ores, which are widely used in the national
economy, and the process of preparing different parts of specific sizes that meet certain
requirements, as well as the technological process of welding all kinds of constructions
and zagotovka.
Therefore, the fundamentals of the science of metal technology should be
thoroughly studied by every engineer and technician who will become qualified
employees in the future .
The science of metal technology consists of 7 main departments:
1. Metallurgy.
2. Metallurgy.
3. Foundry.
4. Working of metals under pressure.
5. Welding of metals.
6. Basics of metal cutting.
7. Non-metallic structural materials.
Metals and alloys, their internal structures.
Metal refers to a substance with a characteristic, shiny, plastic, electrical, heat-
conducting and opaque body.
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In technology, all metal materials are understood as metal, they can be divided
into 2 groups
1)
Base or simple metals (relatively pure of other chemical elements)
2)
Complex metals or alloys (a combination of several simple metals)
According to the periodic system of Mendeleev D, I., there are currently 110
chemical elements, 3/4 of which are metals. The rest are non-metals. Despite the
abundance of metals, very few are used in industry.
The metal of the main industrial importance is iron (Ge), which combines with
carbon (S) to form ferrous metals.
The particles that make up the crystals are arranged geometrically, exaggerating
the size of these crystals, this arrangement is called a crystal lattice. (Fig. 1.1)
Figure 1.1. Crystal grid and slot
X-ray investigations have shown that the crystal lattices of most metals are of
the following type (Fig. 1.2).
1)
Centered cubic lattice. There are 9 atoms in the cell of the crystal lattice, 8 atoms at
the corners of the cube, and 1 atom in the center of the cube. Such a lattice is typical
of Fe, Na, Cr., and other metals.
2)
A cube grid with edges centered. There are 14 atoms in the unit cell, 8 atoms are at
the ends of the cube and 6 atoms are at the centers of the sides of the cube. Such a
crystal lattice is characteristic of Al, lead, gold, Ni and other metals.
3)
Hexagonal grid (hexagonal prism) has metal atoms, 12 of which are located at the
ends of the corners of the prism, 3 of which are located in the middle cross-section
of the prism, and 2 of which are located in the center of the upper and lower surfaces
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of the prism. Such a metal grid is typical of magnesium, zinc, titanium, and other
metals.
а)
б)
с)
Na, K, Wo, Mo, Cr, Ti,
-Fe ………………..
Cu,Al, Hb, …………..
Ca, Ni, ……………….
-Fe ………………...
Mg, Zn, Te,Ka,Be……
1. Fig. 2. Crystal lattice type.
a) Centered cubic lattice. b) A cubic grid with sides centered.
s) Hexagonal lattice.
The properties of metals vary depending on the shape of the crystal lattice and
the atoms and distances between the atoms. Atoms of crystalline substances are
arranged in a certain order in the spatial lattice, these substances have a certain melting
temperature. Examples of crystalline substances are all metals and their alloys, table
salt, sugar, etc.
The transition of the spatial lattice from one type to another occurs at certain
critical temperatures and is referred to as allotropic changes.
In the spatial lattice of crystalline substances, the atoms are arranged in a uniform
and certain order, in different directions their properties are different, because the
distance between the atoms changes.
The size of the atoms that make up the elementary cell is too small to measure
them, it is measured in angstrom unit equal to 1A=0.00000001 cm.
The value of the distance between the centers of the atoms that make up the
crystal lattice is also close to this. Each metal has its own crystal lattice.
A geometrically correct shape resulting from the arrangement of atoms in a
certain order is called a whole crystal or a monocrystal. Whole crystals form only if
there is no external resistance to its growth. Crystallization usually begins to occur
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within the cooling liquid metal. As the metal solidifies, other crystals growing in it
distort the formed crystals, resulting in grains-like crystals. Therefore, the external
shape is called irregular crystal grains. Inside the grains, the atoms remain in a certain
order.
The arrangement of atoms of crystalline bodies at different densities in different
planes is called anisotropic property. For example, if we take a piece of crystal body
and cut it in different planes and apply a force to it, the force will be of different
amounts.
Crystalline bodies change from a liquid state to a solid state and vice versa at a
certain temperature. These temperatures are called melting point and solidification
point. The process of crystallization of metals consists of two stages: the formation of
crystal centers and the growth of crystals around the formed centers ( Fig. 1. 3).
Studying the process of formation of crystals is of great practical importance, because
the properties of metals depend on the shape, location and size of grains. So, the process
of transition of metals from liquid state to solid state, which consists of the arrangement
of atoms in the correct order (forming a crystal lattice) The process of transition of
liquid metal to solid state is called primary crystallization.
Figure 1.3. Stages of the crystallization process.
In some metals and alloys, even after the end of the crystallization process,
changes in their structure continue. This process is called secondary crystallization.
Changes in the structure of a metal in the solid state are called allotropic changes.
The process of secondary crystallization is that at a certain temperature, the
crystal lattice of the metal changes. During this change, the atoms regroup to form a
new crystal lattice.
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This is the reason why the properties of the metal change during secondary
crystallization. Such changes can be observed during heat treatment of metals.
Depending on the use of details made of metals and alloys, different
requirements are set. Example (cutting tool, electric wires, etc.)
The properties of metals can be divided into the following 4 groups:
1.
Physical properties.
2.
Chemical properties.
3.
Mechanical properties.
4.
Technological properties.
Physical properties: color of metals, specific gravity, electrical conductivity,
magnetic properties, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, heat capacity, etc.
Chemical properties: metal oxidation, solubility, corrosion resistance, etc.
Mechanical properties include: metal strength, hardness, ductility, smoothness,
etc.
Technological properties: flowability, shearability, weldability, malleability,
malleability, fluidity, etc.
The color of metals is not transparent, each metal has its own luster and color.
Copper-red, zinc-gray, iron-silvery and hakozo.
Relative weight - the amount of metals per unit volume of the substance is
determined as follows
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