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director ownership on firm performance at high level of ownership condition (above 25%) due to less
monitoring by the market and making more expropriation. Studies made by Bhagat & Bolton (2009);
Kapopoulos & Lazaretou (2007); Liang (2009); Marashdeh (2014) and Makhlouf et al. (2017) also
witness the existence of positive relationship between director ownership and firm performance. On
the other hand, Bathula (2008) reported that director ownership is negatively associated with firm
performance in New Zealand. These findings indicate a controversial standing of the director
ownership- firm performance relationship. So understanding the relationship might be beneficial to the
practitioners. Therefore, relevant hypothesis of the study is:
H1: Director Ownership has a significant positive correlation with firm performance.
CEO Duality
Coles & Hesterly (2000) stated that if CEO holds the position of chair, s/he will broaden the
power base and deteriorate the board’s role of monitoring, also weaken the performance evaluating
role of the higher management. In research, relationship between CEO duality and firm performance is
still an unsolved issue as a number of controversial results is in existence. Rechner & Dalton (1991)
found positive relationship between absence of CEO duality and firm performance. Sanda et al.
(2005), Bathula (2008) and Huining (2014) also found positive relation between CEO duality and firm
performance. On the other hand, Weir et al. (2002) ; Desoky and Mousa (2012); Haniffa and Hudaib
(2006) and Kajola (2008) found a negative relationship between CEO duality and firm performance in
their studies conducted on Uk, Egypt, Malaysia and Nigeria respectively. They also claimed that
through separation of board firms can perform better as CEO duality is a weakness in the internal
control unit of the firms. Beyond these outcomes, Daily & Dalton (1997) and Dalton et al. (1998)
found to have no significant difference in the performance of firms with CEO duality and those
without CEO duality. Study of Omran et al. (2008) reported that firm performance is not affected by
absence of CEO duality (separation of CEO and Chairman) in a firm. Makhlouf et al. (2017) also
found that there is no significant relationship between CEO duality anf firm performance. At this
stage, our hypothesis has been developed in the following way:
H2: CEO duality has significant positive correlation with firm performance.
Female Board Members
In present world, women are not confined to only household chores. They are getting educated,
building their own careers, are participating in every sector side by side with the male counterpart.
Existence of woman though in small numbers in boardrooms is also vigilant now a days. This
percentage varies country to country. Considering the necessity of women in boardrooms. Some
countries like Sweden, Norway, Turkey; are introducing new legislations requiring a particular
percentage of women in boards (Smith, et al., 2006, Mete & Mesut, 2016). In Turkey, according to the
Corporate Governance Principles issued by the SPK, the public companies listed in Borsa Istanbul
(BIST) Index are required to have at least one female director on their boards (Mete & Mesut, 2016).
Previous studies show a mixed result of the relationship between having women board members and
firm performance. Shrader et al., (1997) found no significant positive relationship between percentage
of female directors and firm performance measured by ROA and ROE of US firms. Du Rietz, and
Henrekson (2000) found no relationship between the presence of women on the boards of Swedish
firms and firm performance. Randoy et al., (2006) also found no effect of gender diversity on stock
market return or ROA in their study based on Scandanavian countries: Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
Smith et al., (2006) conducted a study on Danish firms and found no significant relationship between
representation of women on boards and accounting measures of firm performance. Results of the
studies done by Rose (2007) and Horvath & Spirollari (2012) also shows insignificant relationship
between female board members and Tobin’s Q in Danish and US firms respectively. Campbell &
Minguez-Vera (2008) also stated in their study on Spanish firms that presence of women does not
affect firm performance but board diversity does have positive impact on the value of the firm. On the
other hand, Bo¨hren and Stro¨m (2005) found significant negative relationship between proportion of
women on boards and firm performance measured bt Tobin’s Q of Norwegian firms. Cater et al.,
(2003), Erhardt et al.,( 2003) Smith et al.,(2006) reported existence of positive relationship between
proportion of women board members and firm performance in their studies.Some more recent studies
done by Bathula (2008), Liu et al. (2013), Lückerath-Rovers (2013), and Karayel and Dogan (2014)
shows significant positive relationship between presence women board members and firm
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performance in
Kiwis,
Chinese, Dutch and Turkish firms respectively. Kılıç, & Kuzey, (2016) also
supported existence of females on board stating that presence of women board members has a positive
impact on firm performance of Turkey measured by Return On Assets, Return On Equity and Return
on Sales. Though Earley and Mosakowski (2000), Lau and Murnighan (1998) and Tajfel and Turner
(1986) do not support gender diversity in board because of the prevailing disadvantages. However,
there are a good number of advantages of board diversity. Board diversity tend to (i) increase a firm’s
competitive advantage; (ii) increase creativity and innovation; (iii) may improve the quality of
directors; (iv) promote better understanding of the market place and (v) enhance problem solving
through evaluating a number of viewpoints ( Campbell and Minguez-Vera:2008). Being motivated by
the positive perspectives, our hypothesis of the study has been developed as follows:
H3: Existence of female board members has positive correlation with the firm performance.
Board Size
Board size is comprised of the total number of members in a board. Relationship between board
size and firm performance is a very important content for good corporate governance system, therefore
is an important research topic for the researchers. Previous studies witness both positive and negative
impact of board size on firm performance. Yermack (1996) measured the relationship between board
size and firm performance of US firms and concluded to have a negative relation measured by Tobins
Q. Afterward many reseach studies have been conducted on different countries and came up with the
same results. For example, Conyon and Peck (2003) conducted a study on five developed countries
together ( England, Denmark,Franch, Netherland and Italy); O’ Connell and Cramer (2010) on Ireland;
Rashid et al. (2010) on Bangladesh; Adebayo et al. (2013) on Nigeria ; Palaniappan (2017) on India;
El- Muade et al. (2018) on Nigeria; ; Makhlouf et al. (2017) on Jordan; Mohammed (2018) on Turkey
found the same results (significant negative relation) consistent with Yermack (1996). On the other
hand, Adams and Mehran (2005) conducted a study on 35 publicly traded US banks and stated the
absence of negative impact of board size on the performance of the banks. Tanna, et al. (2008) and
Bathula (2008) also showed positive relationship between bank size and firm performance on English
banks and New Zealand respectively in their studies. Kajola (2008) in his study on Nigeria reported
significant positive relationship between board size and firm performance. Afterwards, studies
conducted by Ironkwe and Adee (2014) and Ilaboya & Obaretin (2015) found the same results in their
study on Nigeria. Johl et al. (2015) on their study on public listed firms of Malaysia also reported
positive relationship between board size and firm performance. Rashid (2017) also found significant
positive impact of board size on performance of the firms. As majority of previous literatures showed
negative relationship between these factors, thus this inconclusive matter can be hypothesized as:
H4: There is significant negative relation between board size and firm performance.
Educational Qualification of Board Members:
Board members efficient management ability is related to good governance in a firm. This
ability comprises both observable characteristics, for example: educational backgrounds and work
experiences; and unobservable characteristics like leadership and entrepreneurial skills (Bhagat et
al.:2010). Among those characteristics, Hambrick and Mason, 1984; Wiersema and Bantel, 1992;
Datta and Rajagopalan, 1998; Wailderdsak and Suehiro, 2004; Barro and Lee, 2010 regarded
education level as a good proxy for achieving intellectual competence, a higher knowledge base and
representation of human capital. Gottesman and Morey (2006a) also uttered that educational
qualification might be a proxy for intelligence of the managers, which motivates to think that
intelligent managers are better than their peers are. Carson et al. (2004) stated that according to Upper
Echelon Theory the demographic characteristics of top managers or Board of Directors and those of
the organizational decision makers have substantial effects on the performance of the firm. Jung and
Ejermo (2014) noted education background as one of the demographic characteristics of the board. So
it is highly expected to have a significant positive influence of education level of board members on
the performance of a firm. A good number of studies have been conducted on this issue. So far our
knowledge goes; initially those studies were based on developed countries, but later on researchers
conducted studies on developing countries too. Results of those studies reveals a mixed expression
about this topic. Jalbert et al. (2002), Gottesman and Morey (2006a) and Bhagat et al. (2010)
conducted some US based studies which provided a weak indication about the association between
CEO having a post graduate degree (MBA) from a prestigious university with superior performance.
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In fact, Bhagat et al. (2010) concluded with the statement that there is no significant association of
CEO education with firm performance. Thus, CEO education might be a poor proxy for CEO capacity.
Bathula (2008) found negative relationship between the number of board members with PhD and firm
performance in New Zealand. Whereas, Hambrick et al. (1996) stated that “the average education
level of top management team members is positive and significant”. It means that it may have a
positive impact on the performance of the firm. Cheng et al. (2010) in their study on china found
positive association of education level with the performance of the firms. They showed positive
association between university degree held by chairman and seven performance measures; i.e.
earnings per share (EPS), ROA, cumulative returns, cumulative abnormal returns, growth in EPS,
growth in ROA, and the market-to-book ratio. Darmadi (2013) shows evidence that to a particular
extent, education of BODs and CEO matter in explaining performance either ROA or Tobin’s Q. He
also revealed that, CEOs having degrees from prestigious domestic universities perform significantly
better than those who do not have such qualifications. Mohammed (2018) also mentioned that, in
Turkey directors holding postgraduate degrees have greater impact on the performance of the firms.
Similar results also revealed by Ishak et al. (2015) on their study on women directors of Malaysia,
where authors mentioned that education level of directors have a relationship with the firm
performance. Therefore, the hypothesis of the study is:
H 5: Education level has significant positive relation with firm performance.
Frequency of Board Meetings
Impact of frequency of board meeting on firm performance should be measured because
frequency of meetings reflects directors’ willingness and dedication for a firm in ensuring a good
governance system in the board. Conger and Lawler (2009) and Adam and Ferreira (2009) considered
frequency of board meetings as an important way to improve the effectiveness of the board. There are
several studies in the literature that are in support of frequent board meeting because of the prevailing
benefits of it. Studies made by Francis et al. (2012) and Ntim & Oser (2011) agreed to have benefits of
frequent board meeting which is consistent with agency theory that provides a hint to increase
frequency of meeting by Board of Directors to achieve better performance and good governance
(Fama & Jensen: 1983b; Bathula: 2008; Vafeas:1999). Again, some authors do not support to have
frequent board meetings thinking that frequent meetings consist unnecessary things like time spent by
non-executives that can be utilized in exchanging meaningful ideas ( Vafeas;1999), managerial time
involved in meetings, travel expenses, required administrative supports and fees of directors ( Evans et
al. :2002 ). Hahn & Lasfer (2007) mentioned with reference to the stewardship theory that board
meetings are irrelevant to implement a board’s governance as they considered monitoring as an
entirely endogenous process. In previous literatures, the impact of frequency of board meetings on
firm performance is found to be both positive and negative. For example, Studies made by EL-Maude
et al. (2018) found no significant impact of board meeting on the performance of Nigerian firms
measured by ROA which is similar to the results of Jensen (1993). Moreover, the author mentioned to
have an adverse impact of board meetings in case of a board to be over active. His statement has been
proved in the results of the studies made by Danoshana and Ravivathani (2014), Garcia-Sanchez
(2010), and Kamardin (2009); where studies provided an evidence that board meetings have negative
impact on the performance of the firms. Johl et al. (2015) also found negative relationship between
board meetings and firm performance, which is also consistant with the results of Johl (2006), Evans,
et al. Evans, et al. (2002) and Lipton and Lorsh (1992). Brick & Chidambaran (2007); Ntim and Osei
(2011) and Tong, et al (2013) found positive relation of board meetings with performances. Makhlouf
et al. (2017) in their study on Jordan also found significant positive impact of board meetings on firm
performance measured by ROA, but in the same study authors found negative relation of board
meeting with firm performance measured by Tobin’s Q. The interpretation of positive relationship is
that there is absence of experiences in management and supervising. Frequency of meetings also
ensures proper monitoring (Brick & Chidambaran (2007), Ntim and Osei (2011) and Tong, et al
(2013). The interpretation of negative relationship is the costs and fees involved in arranging those
meetings (Vafeas: 1999 and Evans et al.:2002). Therefore, our hypothesis of the study is expected to
be:
H6: There is a significant negative relationship between frequency of board meetings and firm
performance.
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Board Independence
Board independence indicates presence of outside non-executive directors in the board. Fama &
Jensen, (1983b) with reference to agency theory stated that board independence improves firm
performance through bias less monitoring service and utilizing their expertise for the wellbeing of the
firm and shareholders. It is argued that independent directors can provide unique monitoring function;
play useful role strategic planning and risk management (Jensen and Meckling, 1976; Fama, 1980;
Bathala and Rao, 1995; Beasley, 1996 and Farrar, 2005). On the other side, the stewardship theory
supports to have more inside directors believing that insider directors can ensure better performance as
they can govern business activity better than outside directors and can introduce better decisions
decisions (Aduda et al., 2013; Albrecht, Albrecht, & Albrecht, 2004). Till now the impact of board
independence on firm performance is still unsettled. Some empirical evidences made on Anglo-
American countries like Australia (Grace, Ireland&Dunstan,1995) and USA (Baysinger &Butler,1985;
Bhagat&Black,2002;
Chaganti,
Mahajan&Sharma,1985;
Hermalin
&Weisbach,
2003;
Rechner&Dalton,1986; Yermack,1996) documented negative relation of board independence with
firm performance. Alongside, studies made on developing countries like Malaysia (Johl et al., 2015),
Bangladesh (Rashid et al., 2010, Rashid et al., 2012,
Rashid, A. 2018
) also reveals similar results.
Cook (2013) also revealed in his study on Canada that majority independence of the directors do have
minor negative influence on firm performance. The study also documented that having majority of
independent directors have no significant impact on the performance, rather it leads to worse results.,
Hermalin and Weisbach (1991), Barnhart et al. (1994),Barnhart and Rosenstein (1998), Grace et al.
(1995), Dalton and Daily (1999), and Cho and Kim (2007) also found no relationship between these
two factors. On the other hand, Schellenger et al. (1989), Daily and Dalton (1992), Tian and Lau
(2001) and Luan and Tang (2007) found that having more outside independent directors on the board
improves firm economic performance. A good number of studies also are in consistence of these
results. Studies conducted by Pearce & Zahra, 1991; Zahra & Pearce, 1989 on USA, Ezzamel &
Watson, 1993 United Kingdom, Hossain et al., 2001 on New Zealand, Choi, Park & Yoo, 2007; Joh &
Jung, 2012 on Korea, Makhlouf et al (2017) on Jordan, KARAYEL and DOĞAN (2014), KARAYEL
and DOĞAN (2016) on Turkey are some of these. Therefore, the hypothesis of the study might be as
follows:
H7: There is a significant positive relation between independence of board members and firm
performance.
Conclusion
This study determined the existence of a relationship between board characteristics and firm
performance. The findings seem to suggest that greater emphasis need to be taken by firms to have
larger board size, less frequent board meetings and a higher percentage of board members with
accounting expertise which is argued and found in this study to have a positive implication on firm
performance. However, the findings found that board independence does not affect firm performance.
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