status
œconomicus: the Christian laity), were not even a part of
the organization of the Lutheran Church. On the other hand,
in the discussion of excommunication the lay members’
recognition of the Consistorium appointed by the prince as
representatives of the third estate is weakly Lutheran.
119 The name Pietism in itself, which first occurs in Lutheran terri-
tory, indicates that in the opinion of contemporaries it was
characteristic of it that a methodical business was made out
of pietas.
120 It is, of course, granted that though this type of motivation
was primarily Calvinistic it is not exclusively such. It is also
found with special frequency in some of the oldest Lutheran
Church constitutions.
121 In the sense of Heb. v. 13, 14. Compare Spener, Theologische
Bedenken, I, p. 306.
122 Besides Bailey and Baxter (see Consilia theologica, III, 6, 1; 1,
47; 3, 6), Spener was especially fond of Thomas à Kempis, and
even more of Tauler—whom he did not entirely understand
(op. cit., III, 61, 1, No. 1). For detailed discussion of the latter,
see op. cit., I, 1, 1, No. 7. For him Luther is derived directly from
Tauler.
123 See in Ritschl, op. cit., II, p. 113. He did not accept the repent-
ance of the later Pietists (and of Luther) as the sole trustworthy
indication of true conversion (Theologische Bedenken, III, p.
476). On sanctification as the fruit of thankfulness in the belief
of forgiveness, a typically Lutheran idea, see passages cited by
Ritschl, op. cit., p. 115, note 2. On the certitudo salutis see, on
the one hand, Theologische Bedenken, I, p. 324: “true belief is
not so much felt emotionally as known by its fruits” (love and
obedience to God); on the other, Theologische Bedenken, I,
p. 335 f.: “As far as anxiety that they should be assured of salva-
tion and grace is concerned, it is better to trust to our books,
the Lutheran, than to the English writings.” But on the nature
of sanctification he was at one with the English view-point.
notes
210
124 Of this the religious account books which A. H. Francke
recommended were external symptoms. The methodical prac-
tice and habit of virtue was supposed to cause its growth and
the separation of good from evil. This is the principal theme of
Francke’s book, Von des Christen Vollkommenheit.
125 The difference between this rational Pietist belief in Provi-
dence and its orthodox interpretation is shown characteristic-
ally in the famous controversy between the Pietists of Halle
and the orthodox Lutheran Löscher. Löscher in his Timotheus
Verinus goes so far as to contrast everything that is attained by
human action with the decrees of Providence. On the other
hand, Francke’s consistent view was that the sudden flash of
clarity over what is to happen, which comes as a result of quiet
waiting for decision, is to be considered as “God’s hint”, quite
analogous to the Quaker psychology, and corresponding to
the general ascetic idea that rational methods are the way to
approach nearer to God. It is true that Zinzendorf, who in one
most vital decision entrusted the fate of his community to lot,
was far from Francke’s form of the belief in Providence.
Spener, Theologische Bedenken, I, p. 314, referred to Tauler for a
description of the Christian resignation in which one should
bow to the divine will, and not cross it by hasty action on one’s
own responsibility, essentially the position of Francke. Its
effectiveness as compared to Puritanism is essentially weak-
ened by the tendency of Pietism to seek peace in this world, as
can everywhere be clearly seen. “First righteousness, then
peace”, as was said in opposition to it in 1904 by a leading
Baptist (G. White in an address to be referred to later) in
formulating the ethical programme of his denomination
( Baptist Handbook, 1904, p. 107).
126 Lect. paraenet., IV, p. 271.
127 Ritschl’s criticism is directed especially against this continu-
ally recurrent idea. See the work of Francke containing the
doctrine which has already been referred to. (See note 124
above.)
128 It occurs also among English Pietists who were not adherents
of predestination, for instance Goodwin. On him and others
notes
211
compare Heppe, Geschichte des Pietismus in der reformierten
Kirche (Leiden, 1879), a book which even with Ritschl’s stand-
ard work cannot yet be dispensed with for England, and here
and there also for the Netherlands. Even in the nineteenth
century in the Netherlands Köhler, Die Niederl. ref. Kirche, was
asked about the exact time of his rebirth.
129 They attempted thus to counteract the lax results of the
Lutheran doctrine of the recoverability of grace (especially the
very frequent conversion in extremis).
130 Against the corresponding necessity of knowing the day
and hour of conversion as an indispensable sign of its genu-
ineness. See Spener, Theologische Bedenken, II, 6, 1, p. 197.
Repentance was as little known to him as Luther’s terrores
conscientiæ to Melanchthon.
131 At the same time, of course, the anti-authoritarian interpret-
ation of the universal priesthood, typical of all asceticism,
played a part. Occasionally the minister was advised to delay
absolution until proof was given of genuine repentance which,
as Ritschl rightly says, was in principle Calvinistic.
132 The essential points for our purposes are most easily found in
Putt, Zinzendorf ’s Theologie (3 vols., Gotha, 1869), I, pp. 325,
345, 381, 412, 429, 433 f., 444, 448; II, pp. 372, 381, 385, 409 f.;
III, pp. 131, 167, 176. Compare also Bernh. Becker, Zinzendorf
und sein Christentum (Leipzig, 1900), Book III, chap. iii.
133 “In no religion do we recognize as brothers those who have
not been washed in the blood of Christ and continue thor-
oughly changed in the sanctity of the Spirit. We recognize no
evident (
= visible) Church of Christ except where the Word of
Cod is taught in purity and where the members live in holiness
as children of God following its precepts.” The last sentence,
it is true, is taken from Luther’s smaller catechism but, as
Ritschl points out, there it serves to answer the question how
the Name of God shall be made holy, while here it serves to
delimit the Church of the saints.
134 It is true that he only considered the Augsburg Confession to
be a suitable document of the Lutheran Christian faith if, as he
expressed it in his disgusting terminology, a Wundbrühe had
notes
212
been poured upon it. To read him is an act of penitence
because his language, in its insipid melting quality, is even
worse than the frightful Christo-turpentine of F. T. Vischer (in
his polemics with the Munich christoterpe).
135 See Plitt, op. cit., I, p. 346. Even more decisive is the answer,
quoted in Plitt, op. cit., I, p. 381, to the question whether good
works are necessary to salvation. “Unnecessary and harmful
to the attainment of salvation, but after salvation is attained
so necessary that he who does not perform them is not really
saved.” Thus here also they are not the cause of salvation, but
the sole means of recognizing it.
136 For instance, through those caricatures of Christian freedom
which Ritschl, op cit., III, p. 381, so severely criticizes.
137 Above all in the greater emphasis on the idea of retributive
punishment in the doctrine of salvation, which, after the
repudiation of his missionary attempts by the American sects,
he made the basis of his method of sanctification. After that
he places the retention of childlikeness and the virtues of
humble resignation in the foreground as the end of Herrnhut
asceticism, in sharp contrast to the inclination of his own
community to an asceticism closely analogous to the Puritan.
138 Which, however, had its limits. For this season alone it is
wrong to attempt to place Zinzendorf ’s religion in a scheme of
social psychological evolutionary stages, as Lamprecht does.
Furthermore, however, his whole religious attitude is influ-
enced by nothing more strongly than the fact that he was a
Count with an outlook fundamentally feudal. Further, the
emotional side of it would, from the point of view of social
psychology, fit just as well into the period of the sentimental
decadence of chivalry as in that of sensitiveness. If social
psychology gives any clue to its difference from West
European rationalism, it is most likely to be found in the
patriarchal traditionalism of Eastern Germany.
139 This is evident from Zinzendorf ’s controversy with Dippel just
as, after his death, the doctrines of the Synod of 1764 bring
out the character of the Herrnhut community as an institution
for salvation. See Ritschl’s criticism, op. cit., III, pp. 443 f.
notes
213
140 Compare, for instance, §§151, 153, 160. That sanctification may
not take place in spite of true penitence and the forgiveness of
sins is evident, especially from the remarks on p. 311, and
agrees with the Lutheran doctrine of salvation just as it is in
disagreement with that of Calvinism (and Methodism).
141 Compare Zinzendorf ’s opinion, cited in Plitt, op. cit., II, p. 345.
Similarly Spangenberg, Idea Fidei, p. 325.
142 Compare, for instance, Zinzendorf ’s remark on Matt. xx. 28,
cited by Plitt, op. cit., III, p. 131: “When I see a man to whom
God has given a great gift, I rejoice and gladly avail myself of
the gift. But when I note that he is not content with his own,
but wishes to increase it further, I consider it the beginning of
that person’s ruin.” In other words, Zinzendorf denied, espe-
cially in his conversation with John Wesley in 1743, that there
could be progress in holiness, because he identified it with
justification and found it only in the emotional relationship to
Christ (Plitt, I, p. 413). In place of the sense of being the
instrument of God comes the possession of the divine; mysti-
cism, not asceticism (in the sense to be discussed in the
introduction to the following essays) (not here translated.—
Translator’s Note). As is pointed out there, a present,
worldly state of mind is naturally what the Puritan really seeks
for also. But for him the state which he interprets as the certi-
tudo salutis is the feeling of being an active instrument.
143 But which, precisely on account of this mystical tendency, did
not receive a consistent ethical justification. Zinzendorf
rejects Luther’s idea of divine worship in the calling as the
decisive reason for performing one’s duty in it. It is rather a
return for the “Saviour’s loyal services” (Plitt, II, p. 411).
144 His saying that “a reasonable man should not be without faith
and a believer should not be unreasonable” is well known. See
his Sokrates, d. i. Aufrichtige Anzeige verschiedener nicht sowohl
unbekannter als vielmehr in Abfall geratener Hauptwahrheiten
(1725). Further, his fondness for such authors as Bayle.
145 The decided propensity of Protestant asceticism for empiri-
cism, rationalized on a mathematical basis, is well known, but
cannot be further analysed here. On the development of the
notes
214
sciences in the direction of mathematically rationalized exact
investigation, the philosophical motives of it and their con-
trast to Bacon’s view-point, see Windelband, Geschichte der
Philosophie, pp. 305–7, especially the remark on p. 305, which
rightly denies that modern natural science can be understood
as the product of material and technical interests. Highly
important relationships exist, of course, but they are much
more complex. See further Windelband, Neuere Phil., I, pp. 40
ff. For the attitude of Protestant asceticism the decisive point
was, as may perhaps be most clearly seen in Spener’s Theolo-
gische Bedenken, I, p. 232; III, p. 260, that just as the Christian
is known by the fruits of his belief, the knowledge of God and
His designs can only be attained through a knowledge of His
works. The favourite science of all Puritan, Baptist, or Pietist
Christianity was thus physics, and next to it all those other
natural sciences which used a similar method, especially
mathematics. It was hoped from the empirical knowledge of
the divine laws of nature to ascend to a grasp of the essence of
the world, which on account of the fragmentary nature of the
divine revelation, a Calvinistic idea, could never be attained by
the method of metaphysical speculation. The empiricism of
the seventeenth century was the means for asceticism to seek
God in nature. It seemed to lead to God, philosophical specu-
lation away from Him. In particular Spener considers the Aris-
totelean philosophy to have been the most harmful element in
Christian tradition. Every other is better, especially the Pla-
tonic: Cons. Theol., III; 6, 1, Dist. 2, No. 13. Compare further the
following characteristic passage: “Unde pro Cartesio quid
dicam non habeo [he had not read him], semper tamen optavi
et opto, ut Deus viros excitet, qui veram philosophiam vel
tandem oculis sisterent in qua nullius hominis attenderetur
auctoritas, sed sana tantum magistri nescia ratio”, Spener,
Cons. Theol., II, 5, No. 2. The significance of this attitude of
ascetic Protestantism for the development of education,
especially technical education, is well known. Combined with
the attitude to fides implicita they furnished a pedagogical
programme.
notes
215
146 “That is a type of men who seek their happiness in four main
ways: (i) to be insignificant, despised, and abased; (2) to neg-
lect all things they do not need for the service of their Lord; (3)
either to possess nothing or to give away again what they
receive; (4) to work as wage labourers, not for the sake of the
wage, but of the calling in the service of the Lord and their
neighbour” (Rel. Reden, II, p. 180; Plitt, op. cit., I, p. 445). Not
everyone can or may become a disciple, but only those who
receive the call of the Lord. But according to Zinzendorf ’s own
confession (Plitt, op. cit., I, p. 449) there still remain difficul-
ties, for the Sermon on the Mount applies formally to all. The
resemblance of this free universality of love to the old Baptist
ideals is evident.
147 An emotional intensification of religion was by no means
entirely unknown to Lutheranism even in its later period.
Rather the ascetic element, the way of life which the Lutheran
suspected of being salvation by works, was the fundamental
difference in this case.
148 A healthy fear is a better sign of grace than certainty, says
Spener, Theologische Bedenken, I, p. 324. In the Puritan writers
we, of course, also find emphatic warnings against false cer-
tainty; but at least the doctrine of predestination, so far as its
influence determined religious practice, always worked in the
opposite direction.
149 The psychological effect of the confessional was everywhere to
relieve the individual of responsibility for his own conduct,
that is why it was sought, and that weakened the rigorous
consistency of the demands of asceticism.
150 How important at the same time, even for the form of
the Pietist faith, was the part played by purely political factors,
has been indicated by Ritschl in his study of Württemberg
Pietism.
151 See Zinzendorf ’s statement [quoted above, note 146].
152 Of course Calvinism, in so far as it is genuine, is also patri-
archal. The connection, for instance, of the success of Baxter’s
activities with the domestic character of industry in Kidder-
minster is evident from his autobiography. See the passage
notes
216
quoted in the Works of the Puritan Divines, p. 38: “The town
liveth upon the weaving of Kidderminster stuffs, and as they
stand in their loom, they can set a book before them, or edify
each other. . . .” Nevertheless, there is a difference between
patriarchalism based on Pietism and on the Calvinistic and
especially the Baptist ethics. This problem can only be dis-
cussed in another connection.
153 Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versöhnung, third edition, I, p.
598. That Frederick William I called Pietism a religion for the
leisure class is more indicative of his own Pietism than that of
Spener and Francke. Even this king knew very well why he
had opened his realm to the Pietists by his declaration of
toleration.
154 As an introduction to Methodism the excellent article Method-
ismus by Loofs in the Realenzyklopädie für protestantische The-
ologie und Kirche is particularly good. Also the works of Jacoby
(especially the Handbuch des Methodismus), Kolde, Jüngst,
and Southey are useful. On Wesley: Tyerman, Life and Times of
John Wesley is popular. One of the best libraries on the history
of Methodism is that of Northwestern University, Evanston,
Ill. A sort of link between classical Puritanism and Methodism
was formed by the religious poet Isaac Watts, a friend of the
chaplain of Oliver Cromwell (Howe) and then of Richard
Cromwell. Whitefield is said to have sought his advice (cf.
Skeats, op. cit., pp. 254 f.).
155 Apart from the personal influence of the Wesleys the similarity
is historically determined, on the one hand, by the decline of
the dogma of predestination, on the other by the powerful
revival of the sola fide in the founders of Methodism, especially
motivated by its specific missionary character. This brought
forth a modified rejuvenation of certain mediæval methods of
revival preaching and combined them with Pietistic forms. It
certainly does not belong in a general line of development
toward subjectivism, since in this respect it stood behind not
only Pietism, but also the Bernardine religion of the Middle
Ages.
156 In this manner Wesley himself occasionally characterized the
notes
217
effect of the Methodist faith. The relationship to Zinzendorf ’s
Glückseligkeit is evident.
157 Given in Watson’s Life of Wesley, p. 331 (German edition).
158 J. Schneckenburger, Vorlesungen über die Lehrbegriffe der
kleinen protestantischen Kirchenparteien, edited by Hundes-
hagen (Frankfurt, 1863), p. 147.
159 Whitefield, the leader of the predestinationist group which
after his death dissolved for lack of organization, rejected
Wesley’s doctrine of perfection in its essentials. In fact, it is
only a makeshift for the real Calvinistic idea of proof.
160 Schneckenburger, op. cit., p. 145. Somewhat different in Loofs,
op. cit. Both results are typical of all similar religious
phenomena.
161 Thus in the conference of 1770. The first conference of 1744
had already recognized that the Biblical words came “within a
hair” of Calvinism on the one hand and Antinomianism on the
other. But since they were so obscure it was not well to be
separated by doctrinal differences so long as the validity of the
Bible as a practical norm was upheld.
162 The Methodists were separated from the Herrnhuters by their
doctrine of the possibility of sinless perfection, which Zinzen-
dorf, in particular, rejected. On the other hand, Wesley felt the
emotional element in the Herrnhut religion to be mysticism
and branded Luther’s interpretation of the law as blasphem-
ous. This shows the barrier which existed between Lutheran-
ism and every kind of rational religious conduct.
163 John Wesley emphasizes the fact that everywhere, among
Quakers, Presbyterians, and High Churchmen, one must
believe in dogmas, except in Methodism. With the above,
compare the rather summary discussion in Skeats, History of
the Free Churches of England, 1688–1851.
164 Compare Dexter, Congregationalism, pp. 455 ff.
165 Though naturally it might interfere with it, as is to-day the case
among the American negroes. Furthermore, the often def-
initely pathological character of Methodist emotionalism as
compared to the relatively mild type of Pietism may possibly,
along with purely historical reasons and the publicity of the
notes
218
process, be connected with the greater ascetic penetration of
life in the areas where Methodism is widespread. Only a
neurologist could decide that.
166 Loofs, op. cit., p. 750, strongly emphasizes the fact that Meth-
odism is distinguished from other ascetic movements in that
it came after the English Enlightenment, and compares it with
the (surely much less pronounced) German Renaissance of
Pietism in the first third of the nineteenth century. Neverthe-
less, it is permissible, following Ritschl, Lehre von der Rechtfer-
tigung und Versöhnung, I, pp. 568 f., to retain the parallel with
the Zinzendorf form of Pietism, which, unlike that of Spener
and Francke, was already itself a reaction against the
Enlightenment. However, this reaction takes a very different
course in Methodism from that of the Herrnhuters, at least so
far as they were influenced by Zinzendorf.
167 But which, as is shown by the passage from John Wesley
(below, pp. 118–19), it developed in the same way and with the
same effect as the other ascetic denominations.
168 And, as we have seen, milder forms of the consistent ascetic
ethics of Puritanism; while if, in the popular manner, one
wished to interpret these religious conceptions as only
exponents or reflections of capitalistic institutions, just the
opposite would have to be the case.
169 Of the Baptists only the so-called General Baptists go back to
the older movement. The Particular Baptists were, as we have
pointed out already, Calvinists, who in principle limited
Church membership to the regenerate, or at least personal
believers, and hence remained in principle voluntarists and
opponents of any State Church. Under Cromwell, no doubt,
they were not always consistent in practice. Neither they nor
the General Baptists, however important they are as the
bearers of the Baptist tradition, give us any occasion for an
especial dogmatic analysis here. That the Quakers, though
formally a new foundation of George Fox and his associates,
were fundamentally a continuation of the Baptist tradition,
is beyond question. The best introduction to their history,
including their relations to Baptists and Mennonites, is Robert
notes
219
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