Christian Directory (second edition, 1678), I, p. 56. The
political consequences of the renunciation of idolatry of
the flesh and the principle which was first applied only to the
Church but later to life in general, that God alone should rule,
do not belong in this investigation.
31 Of the relation between dogmatic and practical psychological
consequence we shall often have to speak. That the two are not
identical it is hardly necessary to remark.
32 Social, used of course without any of the implications attached
to the modern sense of the word, meaning simply activity
within the Church, politics, or any other social organization.
33 “Good works performed for any other purpose than the glory of
God are sinful” (Hanserd Knolly’s Confession, chap. xvi).
34 What such an impersonality of brotherly love, resulting from
the orientation of life solely to God’s will, means in the field of
religious group life itself may be well illustrated by the attitude
of the China Inland Mission and the International Missionaries
Alliance (see Warneck, Gesch. d. prot. Missionären, pp. 99, 111).
At tremendous expense an army of missionaries was fitted out,
notes
182
for instance one thousand for China alone, in order by itinerant
preaching to offer the Gospel to all the heathen in a strictly
literal sense, since Christ had commanded it and made His
second coming dependent on it. Whether these heathen
should be converted to Christianity and thus attain salvation,
even whether they could understand the language in which the
missionary preached, was a matter of small importance and
could be left to God, Who alone could control such things.
According to Hudson Taylor (see Warneck, op. cit.), China has
about fifty million families; one thousand missionaries could
each reach fifty families per day (!) or the Gospel could be
presented to all the Chinese in less than three years. It is pre-
cisely the same manner in which, for instance, Calvinism car-
ried out its Church discipline. The end was not the salvation of
those subject to it, which was the affair of God alone (in prac-
tice their own) and could not be in any way influenced by the
means at the disposal of the Church, but simply the increase of
God’s glory. Calvinism as such is not responsible for those
feats of missionary zeal, since they rest on an interdenomin-
ational basis. Calvin himself denied the duty of sending mis-
sions to the heathen since a further expansion of the Church is
unius Dei opus. Nevertheless, they obviously originate in the
ideas, running through the whole Puritan ethic, according to
which the duty to love one’s neighbour is satisfied by fulfilling
God’s commandments to increase His glory. The neighbour
thereby receives all that is due him, and anything further is
God’s affair. Humanity in relation to one’s neighbour has, so
to speak, died out. That is indicated by the most various
circumstances.
Thus, to mention a remnant of that atmosphere, in the field
of charity of the Reformed Church, which in certain respects is
justly famous, the Amsterdam orphans, with (in the twentieth
century!) their coats and trousers divided vertically into a black
and a red, or a red and a green half, a sort of fool’s costume,
and brought in parade formation to church, formed, for the
feelings of the past, a highly uplifting spectacle. It served the
glory of God precisely to the extent that all personal and human
notes
183
feelings were necessarily insulted by it. And so, as we shall see
later, even in all the details of private life. Naturally all that
signified only a tendency and we shall later ourselves have to
make certain qualifications. But as one very important tendency
of this ascetic faith, it was necessary to point it out here.
35 In all these respects the ethic of Port Royal, although predesti-
nationist, takes quite a different standpoint on account of
its mystical and otherworldly orientation, which is in so far
Catholic (see Honigsheim, op. cit.).
36 Hundeshagen ( Beitr. z. Kirchenverfassungsgesch. u. Kirchenpoli-
tik, 1864, I, p. 37) takes the view, since often repeated, that
predestination was a dogma of the theologians, not a popular
doctrine. But that is only true if the people is identified with the
mass of the uneducated lower classes. Even then it has only
limited validity. Köhler ( op. cit.) found that in the forties of the
nineteenth century just those masses (meaning the petite bour-
geoisie of Holland) were thoroughly imbued with predestin-
ation. Anyone who denied the double decree was to them a
heretic and a condemned soul. He himself was asked about the
time of his rebirth (in the sense of predestination). Da Costa
and the separation of de Kock were greatly influenced by it. Not
only Cromwell, in whose case Zeller ( Das Theologische System
Zwinglis, p. 17) has already shown the effects of the dogma
most effectively, but also his army knew very well what it was
about. Moreover, the canons of the synods of Dordrecht and
Westminster were national questions of the first importance.
Cromwell’s tryers and ejectors admitted only believers in pre-
destination, and Baxter ( Life, I, p. 72), although he was other-
wise its opponent, considers its effect on the quality of the
clergy to be important. That the Reformed Pietists, the mem-
bers of the English and Dutch conventicles, should not have
understood the doctrine is quite impossible. It was precisely
what drove them together to seek the certitudo salutis.
What significance the doctrine of predestination does or
does not have when it remains a dogma of the theologians is
shown by perfectly orthodox Catholicism, to which it was by no
means strange as an esoteric doctrine under various forms.
notes
184
What is important is that the idea of the individual’s obligation
to consider himself of the elect and prove it to himself was
always denied. Compare for the Catholic doctrine, for instance,
A. Van Wyck, Tract. de prædestinatione (Cologne, 1708). To what
extent Pascal’s doctrine of predestination was correct, we
cannot inquire here.
Hundeshagen, who dislikes the doctrine, evidently gets his
impressions primarily from German sources. His antipathy is
based on the purely deductive opinion that it necessarily leads
to moral fatalism and antinomianism. This opinion has already
been refuted by Zeller, op. cit. That such a result was possible
cannot, of course, be denied. Both Melanchthon and Wesley
speak of it. But it is characteristic that in both cases it is com-
bined with an emotional religion of faith. For them, lacking
the rational idea of proof, this consequence was in fact not
unnatural.
The same consequences appeared in Islam. But why?
Because the Mohammedan idea was that of predetermination,
not predestination, and was applied to fate in this world, not in
the next. In consequence the most important thing, the proof of
the believer in predestination, played no part in Islam. Thus
only the fearlessness of the warrior (as in the case of moira)
could result, but there were no consequences for rationaliza-
tion of life; there was no religious sanction for them.
See the (Heidelberg) theological dissertation of F. Ullrich,
Die Vorherbestimmungslehre im Islam u. Christenheit, 1900. The
modifications of the doctrine which came in practice, for
instance Baxter, did not disturb it in essence so long as the idea
that the election of God, and its proof, fell upon the concrete
individual, was not shaken. Finally, and above all, all the great
men of Puritanism (in the broadest sense) took their departure
from this doctrine, whose terrible seriousness deeply influ-
enced their youthful development. Milton like, in declining
order it is true, Baxter, and, still later, the free-thinker Franklin.
Their later emancipation from its strict interpretation is dir-
ectly parallel to the development which the religious movement
as a whole underwent in the same direction. And all the great
notes
185
religious revivals, at least in Holland, and most of those in
England, took it up again.
37 As is true in such a striking way of the basic atmosphere of
Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress.
38 This question meant less to the later Lutheran, even apart from
the doctrine of predestination, than to the Calvinist. Not
because he was less interested in the salvation of his soul, but
because, in the form which the Lutheran Church had taken, its
character as an institution for salvation ( Heilsanstalt) came to
the fore. The individual thus felt himself to be an object of its
care and dependent on it. The problem was first raised within
Lutheranism characteristically enough through the Pietist
movement. The question of certitudo salutis itself has, how-
ever, for every non-sacramental religion of salvation, whether
Buddhism, Jainism, or anything else, been absolutely funda-
mental; that must not be forgotten. It has been the origin of all
psychological drives of a purely religious character.
39 Thus expressly in the letter to Bucer, Corp. Ref. 29, pp. 883 f.
Compare with that again Scheibe, op. cit., p. 30.
40 The Westminster Confession (XVIII, p. 2) also assures the elect of
indubitable certainty of grace, although with all our activity we
remain useless servants and the struggle against evil lasts
one’s whole life long. But even the chosen one often has to
struggle long and hard to attain the certitudo which the con-
sciousness of having done his duty gives him and of which a
true believer will never entirely be deprived.
41 The orthodox Calvinistic doctrine referred to faith and the con-
sciousness of community with God in the sacraments, and
mentioned the “other fruits of the Spirit” only incidentally. See
the passages in Heppe, op. cit., p. 425. Calvin himself most
emphatically denied that works were indications of favour
before God, although he, like the Lutherans, considered them
the fruits of belief ( Instit. Christ, III, 2, 37, 38). The actual evolu-
tion to the proof of faith through works, which is characteristic
of asceticism, is parallel to a gradual modification of the doc-
trines of Calvin. As with Luther, the true Church was first marked
off primarily by purity of doctrine and sacraments, but later the
notes
186
disciplina came to be placed on an equal footing with the other
two. This evolution may be followed in the passages given by
Heppe, op. cit., pp. 194–5, as well as in the manner in which
Church members were acquired in the Netherlands by the end
of the sixteenth century (express subjection by agreement to
Church discipline as the principal prerequisite).
42 For example, Olevian, De substantia fœderis gratuiti inter Deum
et electos (1585), p. 257; Heidegger, Corpus Theologiæ, XXIV,
p. 87; and other passages in Heppe, Dogmatik der ev. ref. Kirche
(1861), p. 425.
43 On this point see the remarks of Schneckenburger, op. cit., p. 48.
44 Thus, for example, in Baxter the distinction between mortal and
venial sin reappears in a truly Catholic sense. The former is a
sign of the lack of grace which can only be attained by the
conversion of one’s whole life. The latter is not incompatible
with grace.
45 As held in many different shades by Baxter, Bailey, Sedgwick,
Hoornbeek. Further see examples given by Schneckenburger,
op. cit., p. 262.
46 The conception of the state of grace as a sort of social estate
(somewhat like that of the ascetics of the early Church) is
very common. See for instance Schortinghuis, Het innige
Christendom (1740 proscribed by the States-General)!
47 Thus, as we shall see later, in countless passages, especially the
conclusion, of Baxter’s Christian Directory. This recommenda-
tion of worldly activity as a means of overcoming one’s own
feeling of moral inferiority is reminiscent of Pascal’s psycho-
logical interpretation of the impulse of acquisition and ascetic
activity as means to deceive oneself about one’s own moral
worthlessness. For him the belief in predestination and the
conviction of the original sinfulness of everything pertaining to
the flesh resulted only in renunciation of the world and the
recommendation of contemplation as the sole means of light-
ening the burden of sin and attaining certainty of salvation. Of
the orthodox Catholic and the Jansenist versions of the idea of
calling an acute analysis has been made by Dr. Paul Honig-
sheim in the dissertation cited above (part of a larger study,
notes
187
which it is hoped will be continued). The Jansenists lacked
every trace of a connection between certainty of salvation and
worldly activity. Their concept of calling has, even more strongly
than the Lutheran or even the orthodox Catholic, the sense of
acceptance of the situation in life in which one finds oneself,
sanctioned not only, as in Catholicism by the social order, but
also by the voice of one’s own conscience (Honigsheim, op. cit.,
pp. 139 ff.).
48 The very lucidly written sketch of Lobstein in the Festgabe für H.
Holtzmann, which starts from his view-point, may also be com-
pared with the following. It has been criticized for too sharp an
emphasis on the certitudo salutis. But just at this point Calvin’s
theology must be distinguished from Calvinism, the theological
system from the needs of religious practice. All the religious
movements which have affected large masses have started
from the question, “How can I become certain of my salva-
tion?” As we have said, it not only plays a central part in this
case but in the history of all religions, even in India. And could
it well be otherwise?
49 Of course it cannot be denied that the full development of this
conception did not take place until late Lutheran times (Præto-
rius, Nicolai, Meisner). It is present, however, even in Johannes
Gerhard, quite in the sense meant here. Hence Ritschl in Book
IV of his Geschichte des Pietismus (II, pp. 3 ff.) interprets the
introduction of this concept into Lutheranism as a Renaissance
or an adoption of Catholic elements. He does not deny (p. 10)
that the problem of individual salvation was the same for
Luther as for the Catholic Mystics, but he believes that the
solution was precisely opposite in the two cases. I can, of
course, have no competent opinion of my own. That the
atmosphere of Die Freiheit eines Christenmenschen is different,
on the one hand, from the sweet flirtation with the liebem Jesu-
lein of the later writers, and on the other from Tauler’s religious
feeling, is naturally obvious to anyone. Similarly the retention
of the mystic-magical element in Luther’s doctrines of the
Communion certainly has different religious motives from the
Bernhardine piety, the “Song of Songs feeling” to which Ritschl
notes
188
again and again returns as the source of the bridal relations
with Christ. But might not, among other things, that doctrine of
the Communion have favoured the revival of mystical religious
emotions? Further, it is by no means accurate to say that (p. 11,
op. cit.) the freedom of the mystic consisted entirely in isolation
from the world. Especially Tauler has, in passages which from
the point of view of the psychology of religion are very interest-
ing, maintained that the order which is thereby brought into
thoughts concerning worldly activities is one practical result of
the nocturnal contemplation which he recommends, for
instance, in case of insomnia. “Only thereby [the mystical
union with God at night before going to sleep] is reason clari-
fied and the brain strengthened, and man is the whole day the
more peacefully and divinely guided by virtue of the inner dis-
cipline of having truly united himself with God: then all his
works shall be set in order. And thus when a man has fore-
warned (
= prepared) himself of his work, and has placed his
trust in virtue; then if he comes into the world, his works shall
be virtuous and divine” (Predigten, fol. 318). Thus we see, and
we shall return to the point, that mystic contemplation and a
rational attitude toward the calling are not in themselves mutu-
ally contradictory. The opposite is only true when the religion
takes on a directly hysterical character, which has not been the
case with all mystics nor even all Pietists.
50 On this see the introduction to the following essays on the
Wirtschaftsethik der Weltreligionen (not included in this transla-
tion: German in Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie.—
Translator’s Note).
51 In this assumption Calvinism has a point of contact with official
Catholicism. But for the Catholics there resulted the necessity
of the sacrament of repentance; for the Reformed Church that
of practical proof through activity in the world.
52 See, for instance, Beza (De prædestinat doct ex prælect. in Rom
9a, Raph. Eglino exc. 1584), p. 133: “Sicut ex operibus vere bonis
ad sanctificationis donum, a sanctificatione ad fidem—
ascendimus: ita ex certis illis effectis non quamvis vocationem,
sed efficacem illam et ex hac vocatione electionem et ex
notes
189
electione donum prædestinationis in Christo tam firmam quam
immotus est Dei thronus certissima connexione effectorum
et acausarum colligimus. . . .” Only with regard to the signs
of damnation is it necessary to be careful, since it is a matter of
final judgment. On this point the Puritans first differed. See
further the thorough discussion of Schneckenburger, op. cit.,
who to be sure only cites a limited category of literature. In the
whole Puritan literature this aspect comes out. “It will not be
said, did you believe?—but: were you Doers or Talkers only?”
says Bunyan. According to Baxter (The Saints’ Everlasting Rest,
chap. xii), who teaches the mildest form of predestination, faith
means subjection to Christ in heart and in deed. “Do what you
are able first, and then complain of God for denying you grace if
you have cause”, was his answer to the objection that the will
was not free and God alone was able to insure salvation (Works
of the Puritan Divines, IV, p. 155). The investigation of Fuller (the
Church historian) was limited to the one question of practical
proof and the indications of his state of grace in his conduct,
The same with Howe in the passage referred to elsewhere.
Any examination of the Works of the Puritan Divines gives ample
proofs.
Not seldom the conversion to Puritanism was due to
Catholic ascetic writings, thus, with Baxter, a Jesuit tract. These
conceptions were not wholly new compared with Calvin’s own
doctrine (Instit. Christ, chap. i, original edition of 1536, pp. 97,
113). Only for Calvin himself the certainty of salvation could not
be attained in this manner (p. 147). Generally one referred to 1
John iii. 5 and similar passages. The demand for fides efficax is
not—to anticipate—limited to the Calvinists. Baptist confes-
sions of faith deal, in the article on predestination, similarly
with the fruits of faith (“and that its—regeneration—proper
evidence appears in the holy fruits of repentance and faith and
newness of life”—Article 7 of the Confession printed in the
Baptist Church Manual by J. N. Brown, D.D., Philadelphia, Am.
Bapt. Pub. Soc.). In the same way the tract (under Mennonite
influence), Oliif–Tacxken, which the Harlem Synod adopted in
1649, begins on page 1 with the question of how the children of
notes
190
God are to be known, and answers (p. 10): “Nu al is’t dat
dasdanigh vruchtbare ghelove alleene zii het seker fondamen-
tale kennteeken—om de conscientien der gelovigen in het
nieuwe verbondt der genade Gods te versekeren.”
53 Of the significance of this for the material content of social
ethics some hint has been given above. Here we are interested
not in the content, but in the motives of moral action.
54 How this idea must have promoted the penetration of Puritan-
ism with the Old Testament Hebrew spirit is evident.
55 Thus the Savoy Declaration says of the members of the ecclesia
pura that they are “saints by effectual calling, visibly manifested
by their profession and walking”.
56 “A Principle of Goodness”, Charnock in the Works of the Puritan
Divines, p. 175.
57 Conversion is, as Sedgwick puts it, an “exact copy of the decree
of predestination”. And whoever is chosen is also called to
obedience and made capable of it, teaches Bailey. Only those
whom God calls to His faith (which is expressed in their con-
duct) are true believers, not merely temporary believers,
according to the (Baptist) Confession of Hanserd Knolly.
58 Compare, for instance, the conclusion to Baxter’s Christian
Directory.
59 Thus, for instance, Charnock, Dostları ilə paylaş: |