Index zur Weisheit des Jesus Sirach (Berlin, 1907).
As is well known, the Hebrew text of the Book of Sirach was
lost, but has been rediscovered by Schechter, and in part sup-
plemented by quotations from the Talmud. Luther did not pos-
sess it, and these two Hebrew concepts could not have had any
influence on his use of language. (See below on Prov. xxii. 29.)
In Greek there is no term corresponding in ethical connota-
tion to the German or English words at all. Where Luther, quite
in the spirit of the modern usage (see below), translates Jesus
Sirach xi. 20 and 21, bleibe in deinem Beruf, the Septuagint has
at one point
´’
, at the other, which however seems to be an
entirely corrupt passage,
(the Hebrew original speaks
of the shining of divine help!). Otherwise in antiquity
`
is used in the general sense of duties. In the works
of the Stoics
occasionally carries similar connotations,
though its linguistic source is indifferent (called to my attention
by A. Dieterich). All other expressions (such as
etc.) have
no ethical implications.
In Latin what we translate as calling, a man’s sustained activ-
ity under the division of labour, which is thus (normally) his
source of income and in the long run the economic basis of his
existence, is, aside from the colourless opus, expressed with an
ethical content, at least similar to that of the German word,
either by officium (from opificium, which was originally ethically
colourless, but later, as especially in Seneca de benef, IV, p. 18,
came to mean Beruf ); or by munus, derived from the compul-
sory obligations of the old civic community; or finally by profes-
sio. This last word was also characteristically used in this sense
for public obligations, probably being derived from the old tax
declarations of the citizens. But later it came to be applied in
the special modern sense of the liberal professions (as in pro-
fessio bene dicendi), and in this narrower meaning had a signifi-
cance in every way similar to the German Beruf, even in the
more spiritual sense of the word, as when Cicero says of some-
one “non intelligit quid profiteatur”, in the sense of “he does
notes
155
not know his real profession”. The only difference is that it is, of
course, definitely secular without any religious connotation.
That is even more true of ars, which in Imperial times was used
for handicraft. The Vulgate translates the above passages from
Jesus Sirach, at one point with opus, the other (verse 21) with
locus, which in this case means something like social station.
The addition of mandaturam tuorum comes from the ascetic
Jerome, as Brentano quite rightly remarks, without, however,
here or elsewhere, calling attention to the fact that this was
characteristic of precisely the ascetic use of the term, before the
Reformation in an otherworldly, afterwards in a worldly, sense.
It is furthermore uncertain from what text Jerome’s translation
was made. An influence of the old liturgical meaning of
hbf)lfm\ does not seem to be impossible.
In the Romance languages only the Spanish vocacion in the
sense of an inner call to something, from the analogy of a
clerical office, has a connotation partly corresponding to that of
the German word, but it is never used to mean calling in the
external sense. In the Romance Bible translations the Spanish
vocacion, the Italian vocazione and chiamamento, which other-
wise have a meaning partly corresponding to the Lutheran and
Calvinistic usage to be discussed presently, are used only to
translate the
~
; of the New Testament, the call of the
Gospel to eternal salvation, which in the Vulgate is vocatio.
Strange to say, Brentano, op. cit., maintains that this fact, which
I have myself adduced to defend my view, is evidenced for the
existence of the concept of the calling in the sense which it had
later, before the Reformation. But it is nothing of the kind.
~
had to he translated by vocatio. But where and when in
the Middle Ages was it used in our sense? The fact of this
translation, and in spite of it, the lack of any application of the
word to worldly callings is what is decisive. Chiamamento is
used in this manner along with vocazione in the Italian Bible
translation of the fifteenth century, which is printed in the
Collezione di opere inedite e rare (Bologna, 1887), while the mod-
ern Italian translations use the latter alone. On the other hand,
the words used in the Romance languages for calling in the
notes
156
external worldly sense of regular acquisitive activity carry, as
appears from all the dictionaries and from a report of my friend
Professor Baist (of Freiburg), no religious connotation what-
ever. This is so no matter whether they are derived from minis-
terium or officium, which originally had a certain religious col-
ouring, or from ars, professio, and implicare (impeigo), from
which it has been entirely absent from the beginning. The pas-
sages in Jesus Sirach mentioned above, where Luther used
Beruf, are translated: in French, v. 20, office; v. 21, labeur (Calvin-
istic translation); Spanish, v. 20, obra; v. 21, lugar (following the
Vulgate); recent translations, posto (Protestant). The Protest-
ants of the Latin countries, since they were minorities, did not
exercise, possibly without even making the attempt, such a
creative influence over their respective languages as Luther did
over the still less highly rationalized (in an academic sense)
German official language.
2 On the other hand, the Augsburg Confession only contains the
idea implicitly and but partially developed. Article XVI (ed. by
Kolde, p. 43) teaches: “Meanwhile it (the Gospel) does not
dissolve the ties of civil or domestic economy, but strongly
enjoins us to maintain them as ordinances of God and in such
ordinances (ein jeder nach seinem Beruf ) to exercise charity.”
(Translated by Rev. W. H. Teale, Leeds, 1842.)
(In Latin it is only “et in talibus ordinationibus exercere
caritatem”. The English is evidently translated directly from
the Latin, and does not contain the idea which came into the
German version.—Translator’s Note.)
The conclusion drawn, that one must obey authority, shows
that here Beruf is thought of, at least primarily, as an objective
order in the sense of the passage in 1 Cor. vii. 20.
And Article XXVII (Kolde, p. 83) speaks of Beruf (Latin in
vocatione sua) only in connection with estates ordained by
God: clergy, magistrates, princes, lords, etc. But even this is
true only of the German version of the Konkordienbuch, while in
the German Ed. princeps the sentence is left out.
Only in Article XXVI (Kolde, p. 81) is the word used in a sense
which at least includes our present meaning: “that he did
notes
157
chastise his body, not to deserve by that discipline remission of
sin, but to have his body in bondage and apt to spiritual things,
and to do his calling”. Translated by Richard Taverner, Philadel-
phia Publications Society, 1888. (Latin juxta vocationem suam.)
3 According to the lexicons, kindly confirmed by my colleagues
Professors Braune and Hoops, the word Beruf (Dutch
beroep, English calling, Danish kald, Swedish kallelse) does not
occur in any of the languages which now contain it in its pres-
ent worldly (secular) sense before Luther’s translation of the
Bible. The Middle High German, Middle Low German, and
Middle Dutch words, which sound like it, all mean the same as
Ruf in modern German, especially inclusive, in late mediæval
times, of the calling (vocation) of a candidate to a clerical
benefice by those with the power of appointment. It is a special
case which is also often mentioned in the dictionaries of the
Scandinavian languages. The word is also occasionally used by
Luther in the same sense. However, even though this special
use of the word may have promoted its change of meaning, the
modern conception of Beruf undoubtedly goes linguistically
back to the Bible translations by Protestants, and any anticipa-
tion of it is only to be found, as we shall see later, in Tauler (died
1361). All the languages which were fundamentally influenced
by the Protestant Bible translations have the word, all of which
this was not true (like the Romance languages) do not, or at
least not in its modern meaning.
Luther renders two quite different concepts with Beruf. First
the Pauline
~
in the sense of the call to eternal salvation
through God. Thus: 1 Cor. i. 26; Eph. i. 18; iv. 1, 4; 2 Thess. i. 11;
Heb. iii. 1; 2 Peter i. 10. All these cases concern the purely
religious idea of the call through the Gospel taught by the apos-
tle; the word
~
has nothing to do with worldly callings in
the modern sense. The German Bibles before Luther use in this
case ruffunge (so in all those in the Heidelberg Library), and
sometimes instead of “von Gott geruffet” say “von Gott
gefordert”. Secondly; however, he, as we have already seen,
translates the words in Jesus Sirach discussed in the previous
note (in the Septuagint
`’ ~. ´’ .
and
`
notes
158
´’
~.
~.
), with “beharre in deinem Beruf ” and
“bliebe in deinem Beruf ”, instead of “bliebe bei deiner Arbeit”.
The later (authorized) Catholic translations (for instance that of
Fleischütz, Fulda, 1781) have (as in the New Testament pas-
sages) simply followed him. Luther’s translation of the passage
in the Book of Sirach is, so far as I know, the first case in which
the German word Beruf appears in its present purely secular
sense. The preceding exhortation, verse 20,
~
he translates “bliebe in Gottes Wort”, although Sirach xiv. I
and xliii. 10 show that, corresponding to the Hebrew
qxo, which
(according to quotations in the Talmud) Sirach used,
really did mean something similar to our calling, namely one’s
fate or assigned task. In its later and present sense the word
Beruf did not exist in the German language, nor, so far as I can
learn, in the works of the older Bible translators or preachers.
The German Bibles before Luther rendered the passage from
Sirach with Werk. Berthold of Regensburg, at the points in his
sermons where the modern would say Benif, uses the word
Arbeit. The usage was thus the same as in antiquity. The first
passage I know, in which not Beruf but Ruf (as a translation of
~
) is applied to purely worldly labour, is in the fine sermon
of Tauler on Ephesians iv (Works, Basle edition, f. 117. v), of
peasants who misten go: they often fare better “so sie folgen
einfeltiglich irem Ruff denn die geistlichen Menschen, die auf
ihren Ruf nicht Acht haben”. The word in this sense did not find
its way into everyday speech. Although Luther’s usage at first
vacillates between Ruf and Beruf (see Werke, Erlangen edition,
p. 51.), that he was directly influenced by Tauler is by no means
certain, although the Freiheit eines Christenmenschen is in many
respects similar to this sermon of Tauler. But in the purely
worldly sense of Tauler, Luther did not use the word Ruf. (This
against Denifle, Luther, p. 163.)
Now evidently Sirach’s advice in the version of the Septu-
agint contains, apart from the general exhortation to trust in
God, no suggestion of a specifically religious valuation of
secular labour in a calling. The term
, toil, in the corrupt
second passage would be rather the opposite, if it were not
notes
159
corrupted. What Jesus Sirach says simply corresponds to the
exhortation of the psalmist (Psa. xxxvii. 3), “Dwell in the land,
and feed on his faithfulness”, as also comes out clearly in the
connection with the warning not to let oneself be blinded with
the works of the godless, since it is easy for God to make a poor
man rich. Only the opening exhortation to remain in the
qxo
(verse 20) has a certain resemblance to the
~
of the Gos-
pel, but here Luther did not use the word Beruf for the Greek
. The connection between Luther’s two seemingly quite
unrelated uses of the word Beruf is found in the first letter to the
Corinthians and its translation.
In the usual modern editions, the whole context in which the
passage stands is as follows, 1 Cor. vii. 17 (English, King James
version [American revision, 1901]): “(17) Only as the Lord hath
distributed to each man, as God hath called each, so let him
walk. And so ordain I in all churches. (18) Was any man called
being circumcised? let him not become uncircumcised. Hath
any man been called in uncircumcision? let him not be circum-
cised. (19) Circumcision is nothing and uncircumcision is noth-
ing; but the keeping of the commandments of God. (20) Let
each man abide in that calling wherein he was called (
’ ~
.
~
. ’
; an undoubted Hebraism, as Professor Merx
tells me). (21) Wast thou called being a bondservant? care not
for it; nay even if thou canst become free use it rather. (22) For
he that was called in the Lord being a bondservant is the Lord’s
freedman; likewise he that was called being free is Christ’s
bondservant. (23) Ye were bought with a price; become not
bondservants of men. (24) Brethren, let each man, wherein he
was called, therein abide with God.”
In verse 29 follows the remark that time is shortened, fol-
lowed by the well-known commandments motivated by
eschatological expectations: (31) to possess women as though
one did not have them, to buy as though one did not have
what one had bought, etc. In verse 20 Luther, following the
older German translations, even in 1523 in his exigesis of this
chapter, renders
~
with Beruf, and interprets it with Stand.
(Erlangen ed., LI, p. 51.)
notes
160
In fact it is evident that the word
~
at this point, and only
at this, corresponds approximately to the Latin status and the
German Stand (status of marriage, status of a servant, etc.).
But of course not as Brentano, op. cit., p. 137, assumes, in the
modern sense of Beruf. Brentano can hardly have read this
passage, or what I have said about it, very carefully. In a sense
at least suggesting it this word, which is etymologically related
to
’
´
an assembly which has been called, occurs in Greek
literature, so far as the lexicons tell, only once in a passage from
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, where it corresponds to the Latin
classis, a word borrowed from the Greek, meaning that part of
the citizenry which has been called to the colours. Theophylak-
tos (eleventh–twelfth century) interprets 1 Cor. vii. 20:
’
.
.
` ’
.
`
´’ ’ ´
. (My col-
league Professor Deissmann called my attention to this pas-
sage.) Now, even in our passage,
~
does not correspond to
the modern Beruf. But having translated
~
with Beruf in the
eschatologically motivated exhortation, that everyone should
remain in his present status, Luther, when he later came to
translate the Apocrypha, would naturally, on account of the
similar content of the exhortations alone, also use Beruf for
in the traditionalistic and anti-chrematistic command-
ment of Jesus Sirach, that everyone should remain in the same
business. This is what is important and characteristic. The pas-
sage in 1 Cor. vii. 17 does not, as has been pointed out, use
~
at all in the sense of Beruf, a definite field of activity.
In the meantime (or about the same time), in the Augsburg
Confession, the Protestant dogma of the uselessness of the
Catholic attempt to excel worldly morality was established, and
in it the expression “einem jeglichen nach seinem Beruf ” was
used (see previous note). In Luther’s translation, both this and
the positive valuation of the order in which the individual was
placed, as holy, which was gaining ground just about the
beginning of the 1530s, stand out. It was a result of his more
and more sharply defined belief in special Divine Providence,
even in the details of life, and at the same time of his increasing
inclination to accept the existing order of things in the world as
notes
161
immutably willed by God. Vocatio, in the traditional Latin,
meant the divine call to a life of holiness, especially in a monas-
tery or as a priest. But now, under the influence of this dogma,
life in a worldly calling came for Luther to have the same conno-
tation. For he now translated
and
´’
in Jesus Sirach
with Beruf, for which, up to that time, there had been only the
(Latin) analogy, coming from the monastic translation. But a
few years earlier, in Prov. xxii. 29, he had still translated the
Hebrew
hbf)lfm\, which was the original of
´’
in the Greek
text of Jesus Sirach, and which, like the German Beruf and the
Scandinavian kald, kallelse, originally related to a spiritual call
(Beruf ), as in other passages (Gen. xxxix. 11), with Geschäft
(Septuagint
´’
, Vulgate opus, English Bibles business, and
correspondingly in the Scandinavian and all the other transla-
tions before me).
The word Beruf, in the modern sense which he had finally
created, remained for the time being entirely Lutheran. To the
Calvinists the Apocrypha are entirely uncanonical. It was only
as a result of the development which brought the interest in
proof of salvation to the fore that Luther’s concept was taken
over, and then strongly emphasized by them. But in their first
(Romance) translations they had no such word available, and
no power to create one in the usage of a language already so
stereotyped.
Aa early as the sixteenth century the concept of Beruf in its
present sense became established in secular literature. The
Bible translators before Luther had used the word Berufung for
~
(as for instance in the Heidelberg versions of 1462–66
and 1485), and the Eck translation of 1537 says “in dem Ruf,
worin er beruft ist”. Most of the later Catholic translators dir-
ectly follow Luther. In England, the first of all, Wyclif’ s transla-
tion (1382), used cleping (the Old English word which was later
replaced by the borrowed calling). It is quite characteristic of the
Lollard ethics to use a word which already corresponded to the
later usage of the Reformation. Tyndale’s translation of 1534, on
the other hand, interprets the idea in terms of status: “in the
same state wherein he was called”, as also does the Geneva
notes
162
Bible of 1557. Cranmer’s official translation of 1539 substituted
calling for state, while the (Catholic) Bible of Rheims (1582),
as well as the Anglican Court Bibles of the Elizabethan era,
characteristically return to vocation, following the Vulgate.
That for England, Cranmer’s Bible translation is the source of
the Puritan conception of calling in the sense of Beruf, trade,
has already, quite correctly, been pointed out by Murray. As
early as the middle of the sixteenth century calling is used in
that sense. In 1588 unlawful callings are referred to, and in 1603
greater callings in the sense of higher occupations, etc. (see
Murray). Quite remarkable is Brentano’s idea ( op. cit., p. 139),
that in the Middle Ages vocatio was not translated with Beruf,
and that this concept was not known, because only a free man
could engage in a Beruf, and freemen, in the middle-class pro-
fessions, did not exist at that time. Since the whole social struc-
ture of the mediæval crafts, as opposed to those of antiquity,
rested upon free labour, and, above all, almost all the mer-
chants were freemen, I do not clearly understand this thesis.
4 Compare with the following the instructive discussion in K.
Eger, Die Anschauung Luthers vom Beruf (Giessen, 1900). Per-
haps its only serious fault, which is shared by almost all other
theological writers, is his insufficiently clear analysis of the con-
cept of lex naturæ. On this see E. Troeltsch in his review of
Seeberg’s Dogmengeschichte, and now above all in the relevant
parts of his Soziallehren der christlichen Kirchen.
5 For when Thomas Aquinas represents the division of men into
estates and occupational groups as the work of divine provi-
dence, by that he means the objective cosmos of society. But
that the individual should take up a particular calling (as we
should say; Thomas, however, says ministerium or officium) is
due to causæ naturales. Quæst. quodlibetal, VII, Art. 17 Dostları ilə paylaş: |