N
OTES
GIDDENS’ INTRODUCTION
1 Dieter Lindenlaub: Richtungskämpfe im Verein für Sozialpolitik.
Wiesbaden, 1967.
2 Talcott Parsons: ‘ “Capitalism” in recent German literature:
Sombart and Weber’, Parts 1 and 2, The Journal of Political Econ-
omy, Vols. 36 and 37, 1928 and 1929; Philip Siegelman: ‘Intro-
duction’ to Werner Sombart: Luxury and Capitalism. Ann Arbor,
1967.
3 Anthony Giddens: Politics and Sociology in the Thought of Max
Weber. London, 1972.
4 See Max Weber: General Economic History. New York, 1961.
5 Ancient Judaism. Glencoe, 1952; The Religion of India. Glencoe,
1958; The Religion of China. London, 1964 (all bracketed within
the collection Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie); cf.
Bryan S. Turner: Weber and Islam. London, 1974.
6 The Religion of India, p. 112.
7 The Religion of India, p. 337.
8 Anthony Giddens: ‘Marx, Weber, and the development of capit-
alism’, Sociology, Vol. 4, 1970.
9 R. K. Merton: ‘Science, technology and society in seventeenth
century England’, Osiris, Vol. 4, 1938 (reprinted as a single vol-
ume, New York, 1970).
10 Max Weber: ‘Antikritisches Schlusswort zum “Geist des Kapi-
talismus” ’, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, Vol. 31,
1910. See, for example, the following footnotes in the present
work: Chapter I, footnote, 1; Chapter 2, footnotes 10, 12, 13 and
29; Chapter 3, footnotes 1 and 3; Chapter 4, footnotes 3 and 4;
Chapter 5, footnotes 31, 58 and 84.
11 For the best survey of the debate up to the early 1940s, see
Ephraim Fischoff: ‘The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capital-
ism: the history of a controversy ’ Social Research, Vol. 11, 1944.
12 For a somewhat different classification, see Ehud Sprinzak:
‘Weber’s thesis as an historical explanation’, History and Theory,
Vol. 11, 1972.
13 Brentano was one of the first to criticise Weber’s treatment of
the ‘calling’. See Lujo Brentano: Die Anfänge des moderne Kapi-
talismus. Munich, 1916; also H. M. Robertson: Aspects of the
Rise of Economic Individualism. Cambridge, 1933. On Puritan-
ism: Albert Hyma: Renaissance to Reformation. Grand Rapids,
1951; Gabriel Kolko: ‘Max Weber on America: theory and evi-
dence’, History and Theory, Vol. 1, 1960–61 There are many,
many others: as on each of the further points noted below. A
partial bibliography appears in S. N. Eisenstadt: The Protestant
Ethic and Modernisation. New York, 1968; see also David Little:
Religion, Order, and the Law. Oxford, 1970, pp. 226–37.
14 Cf. Max Weber: ‘Die Protestantischen Sekten und der Geist des
Kapitalismus’ (‘The Protestant sects and the spirit of capital-
ism’), in Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie.
15 W. Sombart: The Quintessence of Capitalism. London, 1951;
Hyma, op. cit.; A. Fanfani: Catholicism, Protestantism and Capit-
alism. London, 1935; R. H. Tawney: Religion and the Rise of Cap-
italism. London, 1926; Herbert Lüthy: ‘Once again: Calvinism
and capitalism’, Encounter, Vol. 22, 1964.
16 Kurt Samuelsson: Religion and Economic Action. London, 1961
pp. 137ff.
17 W. Hudson: ‘The Weber thesis re-examined’, Church History, Vol.
30, 1961; Michael Walzer: The Revolution of the Saints. London,
1966 (pp. 306ff); and especially Samuelsson, op. cit.
18 Sombart, op. cit.; H. Sée: ‘Dans quelle mesure Puritains et Juifs
ont-ils contribué au progrès du capitalisme moderne?’, Revue
notes
127
historique, Vol. 155, 1927; Tawney, op. cit.; Christopher Hill: ‘Prot-
estantism and the rise of capitalism’, in F. J. Fisher: Essays in
the Economic and Social History of Tudor and Stuart England.
Cambridge, 1961.
19 E.g. Karl Kautsky: Materialistische Geschichtsauffassung.
20 For a recent version, see Alasdair MacIntyre : ‘A mistake about
causality in the social sciences’, in Peter Laslett and W. G.
Runciman: Philosophy, Politics and Society, Vol. 2, Oxford, 1962.
(Certain of the views expressed in the article have however been
subsequently abandoned by its author.)
21 See, for instance, Little; op. cit.; Sprinzak: op. cit.
22 Weber’s detailed reply to Brentano’s criticism on this point
appears below, in footnotes 1–3, Chapter 3.
AUTHOR’S INTRODUCTION
1 Ständestaat. The term refers to the late form taken by feudal-
ism in Europe in its transition to absolute monarchy.—
Translator’s Note.
2 Here, as on some other points, I differ from our honoured
master, Lujo Brentano (in his work to be cited later). Chiefly in
regard to terminology, but also on questions of fact. It does not
seem to me expedient to bring such different things as acquisi-
tion of booty and acquisition by management of a factory
together under the same category; still less to designate every
tendency to the acquisition of money as the spirit of capitalism
as against other types of acquisition. The second sacrifices all
precision of concepts, and the first the possibility of clarifying
the specific difference between Occidental capitalism and other
forms. Also in Simmel’s Philosophie des Geldes money economy
and capitalism are too closely identified, to the detriment of his
concrete analysis. In the writings of Werner Sombart, above all
in the second edition of his most important work, Der moderne
Kapitalismus, the differentia specifica of Occidental capitalism—
at least from the view-point of my problem—the rational organ-
ization of labour, is strongly overshadowed by genetic factors
which have been operative everywhere in the world.
notes
128
3 Commenda was a form of mediæval trading association,
entered into ad hoc for carrying out one sea voyage. A producer
or exporter of goods turned them over to another who took
them abroad (on a ship provided sometimes by one party,
sometimes by the other) and sold them, receiving a share in the
profits. The expenses of the voyage were divided between
the two in agreed proportion, while the original shipper bore
the risk. See Weber, “Handelsgesellschaften im Mittelalter”,
Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte,
pp. 323–8.—Translator’s Note.
4 The sea loan, used in maritime commerce in the Middle Ages,
was “a method of insuring against the risks of the sea without
violating the prohibitions against usury. . . . When certain risky
maritime ventures were to be undertaken, a certain sum . . .
was obtained for the cargo belonging to such and such a per-
son or capitalist. If the ship was lost, no repayment was exacted
by the lender; if it reached port safely, the borrower paid a
considerable premium, sometimes 50 per cent.” Henri Sée,
Modern Capitalism, p. 189.—Translator’s Note.
5 A form of company between the partnership and the limited
liability corporation. At least one of the participants is made
liable without limit, while the others enjoy limitation of liability
to the amount of their investment.—Translator’s Note.
6 Naturally the difference cannot be conceived in absolute terms.
The politically oriented capitalism (above all tax-farming) of
Mediterranean and Oriental antiquity, and even of China and
India, gave rise to rational, continuous enterprises whose book-
keeping—though known to us only in pitiful fragments—
probably had a rational character. Furthermore, the politically
oriented adventurers’ capitalism has been closely associated
with rational bourgeois capitalism in the development of mod-
ern banks, which, including the Bank of England, have for the
most part originated in transactions of a political nature, often
connected with war. The difference between the characters of
Paterson, for instance—a typical promoter—and of the mem-
bers of the directorate of the Bank who gave the keynote to its
permanent policy, and very soon came to be known as the
notes
129
“Puritan usurers of Grocers’ Hall”, is characteristic of it. Simi-
larly, we have the aberration of the policy of this most solid
bank at the time of the South Sea Bubble. Thus the two natur-
ally shade off into each other. But the difference is there. The
great promoters and financiers have no more created the
rational organization of labour than—again in general and with
individual exceptions—those other typical representatives of
financial and political capitalism, the Jews. That was done,
typically, by quite a different set of people.
7 For Weber’s discussion of the ineffectiveness of slave labour,
especially so far as calculation is concerned, see his essay,
“Agrarverhältnisse im Altertum”, in the volume Gesammelte
Aufsätze zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte.—Translator’s
Note.
8 That is, in the whole series of Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie,
not only in the essay here translated. See translator’s preface.—
Translator’s Note.
9 The remains of my knowledge of Hebrew are also quite
inadequate.
10 I need hardly point out that this does not apply to attempts like
that of Karl Jasper’s (in his book Psychologie der Weltanschauun-
gen, 1919), nor to Klages’s Charakterologie, and similar studies
which differ from our own in their point of departure. There is
no space here for a criticism of them.
11 The only thing of this kind which Weber ever wrote is the sec-
tion on “Religionssoziologie” in his large work Wirtschaft und
Gesellschaft. It was left unfinished by him and does not really
close the gap satisfactorily.—Translator’s Note.
12 Some years ago an eminent psychiatrist expressed the same
opinion to me.
1 THE PROBLEM
1 From the voluminous literature which has grown up around
this essay I cite only the most comprehensive criticisms. (1) F.
Rachfahl, “Kalvinismus und Kapitalismus”, Internationale
Wochenschrift für Wissenschaft, Kunst und Technik (1909), Nos.
notes
130
39–43. In reply, my article: “Antikritisches zum Geist des
Kapitalismus,” Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik
(Tübingen), XX, 1910. Then Rachfahl’s reply to that: “Nochmals
Kalvinismus und Kapitalismus”, 1910, Nos. 22–25, of
the Internationale Wochenschrift. Finally my “Antikritisches
Schlusswort”, Archiv, XXXI. (Brentano, in the criticism pres-
ently to be referred to, evidently did not know of this last phase
of the discussion, as he does not refer to it.) I have not
incorporated anything in this edition from the somewhat
unfruitful polemics against Rachfahl. He is an author whom I
otherwise admire, but who has in this instance ventured into a
field which he has not thoroughly mastered. I have only added
a few supplementary references from my anti-critique, and have
attempted, in new passages and footnotes, to make impossible
any future misunderstanding. (2) W. Sombart, in his book Der
Bourgeois (Munich and Leipzig, 1913, also translated into Eng-
lish under the title The Quintessence of Capitalism, London,
1915), to which I shall return in footnotes below, Finally (3) Lujo
Brentano in Part II of the Appendix to his Munich address (in
the Academy of Sciences, 1913) on Die Anfänge des modernen
Kapitalismus, which was published in 1916. (Since Weber’s
death Brentano has somewhat expanded these essays and
incorporated them into his recent book Der wirtschaftende
Mensch in der Geschichte.—Translator’s Note.) I shall also
refer to this criticism in special footnotes in the proper places. I
invite anyone who may be interested to convince himself by
comparison that I have not in revision left out, changed the
meaning of, weakened, or added materially different state-
ments to, a single sentence of my essay which contained any
essential point. There was no occasion to do so, and the devel-
opment of my exposition will convince anyone who still doubts.
The two latter writers engaged in a more bitter quarrel with
each other than with me. Brentano’s criticism of Sombart’s
book, Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben, I consider in many
points well founded, but often very unjust, even apart from the
fact that Brentano does not himself seem to understand the
real essence of the problem of the Jews (which is entirely
notes
131
omitted from this essay, but will be dealt with later [in a later
section of the Religionssoziologie.—Translator’s Note]).
From theologians I have received numerous valuable sug-
gestions in connection with this study. Its reception on their
part has been in general friendly and impersonal, in spite of
wide differences of opinion on particular points. This is the
more welcome to me since I should not have wondered at a
certain antipathy to the manner in which these matters must
necessarily be treated here. What to a theologian is valuable in
his religion cannot play a very large part in this study. We are
concerned with what, from a religious point of view, are often
quite superficial and unrefined aspects of religious life, but
which, and precisely because they were superficial and
unrefined, have often influenced outward behaviour most
profoundly.
Another book which, besides containing many other things,
is a very welcome confirmation of and supplement to this
essay in so far as it deals with our problem, is the important
work of E. Troeltsch, Die Soziallehren der christlichen Kirchen und
Gruppen (Tübingen, 1912). It deals with the history of the ethics
of Western Christianity from a very comprehensive point of
view of its own. I here refer the reader to it for general com-
parison instead of making repeated references to special
points. The author is principally concerned with the doctrines
of religion, while I am interested rather in their practical
results.
2 The exceptions are explained, not always, but frequently, by the
fact that the religious leanings of the labouring force of an
industry are naturally, in the first instance, determined by those
of the locality in which the industry is situated, or from which
its labour is drawn. This circumstance often alters the impres-
sion given at first glance by some statistics of religious adher-
ence, for instance in the Rhine provinces. Furthermore, figures
can naturally only be conclusive if individual specialized
occupations are carefully distinguished in them. Otherwise very
large employers may sometimes be grouped together with
master craftsmen who work alone, under the category of “pro-
notes
132
prietors of enterprises”. Above all, the fully developed capital-
ism of the present day, especially so far as the great unskilled
lower strata of labour are concerned, has become independent
of any influence which religion may have had in the past. I shall
return to this point.
3 Compare, for instance, Schell, Der Katholizismus als Prinzip des
Fortschrittes (Würzburg, 1897), p. 31, and v. Hertling, Das
Prinzip des Katholizismus und die Wissenschaft (Freiburg, 1899),
p. 58.
4 One of my pupils has gone through what is at this time the
most complete statistical material we possess on this subject:
the religious statistics of Baden. See Martin Offenbacher, “Kon-
fession und soziale Schichtung”, Eine Studie über die wirt-
schaftliche Lage der Katholiken und Protestanten in Baden
(Tübingen und Leipzig, 1901), Vol. IV, part v, of the Volkswirt-
schaftliche Abhandlungen der badischen Hochschulen. The facts
and figures which are used for illustration below are all drawn
from this study.
5 For instance, in 1895 in Baden there was taxable capital avail-
able for the tax on returns from capital:
Per 1,000 Protestants . . . . . . 954,000 marks
Per 1,000 Catholics . . . . . . 589,000 marks
It is true that the Jews, with over four millions per 1,000,
were far ahead of the rest. (For details see Offenbacher, op. cit.,
p. 21.)
6 On this point compare the whole discussion in Offenbacher’s
study.
7 On this point also Offenbacher brings forward more detailed
evidence for Baden in his first two chapters.
8 The population of Baden was composed in 1895 as follows:
Protestants, 37.0 per cent.; Catholics, 61.3 per cent.; Jewish, 1.5
per cent. The students of schools beyond the compulsory pub-
lic school stage were, however, divided as follows (Offenbacher,
p. 16):
notes
133
(In the Gymnasium the main emphasis is on the classics. In
the Realgymnasium Greek is dropped and Latin reduced in
favour of modern languages, mathematics and science. The
Realschule and Oberrealschule are similar to the latter except
that Latin is dropped entirely in favour of modern languages.
See G. E. Bolton, The Secondary School System in Germany, New
York, 1900.—Translator’s Note.)
The same thing may be observed in Prussia, Bavaria,
Würtemberg, Alsace-Lorraine, and Hungary (see figures in
Offenbacher, pp. 16 ff.).
9 See the figures in the preceding note, which show that the
Catholic attendance at secondary schools, which is regularly
less than the Catholic share of the total population by a third,
only exceeds this by a few per cent. in the case of the grammar
schools (mainly in preparation for theological studies). With
reference to the subsequent discussion it may further be noted
as characteristic that in Hungary those affiliated with the
Reformed Church exceed even the average Protestant record of
attendance at secondary schools. (See Offenbacher, p. 19, note.)
10 For the proofs see Offenbacher, p. 54, and the tables at the end
of his study.
11 Especially well illustrated by passages in the works of Sir
William Petty, to be referred to later.
12 Petty’s reference to the case of Ireland is very simply explained
by the fact that the Protestants were only involved in the cap-
acity of absentee landlords. If he had meant to maintain more
he would have been wrong, as the situation of the Scotch-Irish
Protestant.
Catholic.
Jews.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
Gymnasien
43
46
9.5
Realgymnasien
69
31
9
Oberrealschulen
52
41
7
Realschulen
49
40
11
Höhere Bürgerschulen
51
37
12
Average
48
42
10
notes
134
shows. The typical relationship between Protestantism and
capitalism existed in Ireland as well as elsewhere. (On the
Scotch-Irish see C. A. Hanna, The Scotch-Irish, two vols.,
Putnam, New York.)
13 This is not, of course, to deny that the latter facts have had
exceedingly important consequences. As I shall show later, the
fact that many Protestant sects were small and hence homo-
geneous minorities, as were all the strict Calvinists outside of
Geneva and New England, even where they were in possession
of political power, was of fundamental significance for the
development of their whole character, including their manner
of participation in economic life. The migration of exiles of all
the religions of the earth, Indian, Arabian, Chinese, Syrian,
Phœnician, Greek, Lombard, to other countries as bearers of
the commercial lore of highly developed areas, has been of
universal occurrence and has nothing to do with our problem.
Brentano, in the essay to which I shall often refer, Die Anfänge
des modern Kapitalismus, calls to witness his own family. But
bankers of foreign extraction have existed at all times and in all
countries as the representatives of commercial experience and
connections. They are not peculiar to modern capitalism, and
were looked upon with ethical mistrust by the Protestants (see
below). The case of the Protestant families, such as the Muralts,
Pestalozzi, etc., who migrated to Zurich from Locarno, was dif-
ferent. They very soon became identified with a specifically
modern (industrial) type of capitalistic development.
14 Offenbacher, op. cit., p. 58.
15 Unusually good observations on the characteristic peculiarities
of the different religions in Germany and France, and the rela-
tion of these differences to other cultural elements in the con-
flict of nationalities in Alsace are to be found in the fine study of
W. Wittich, “Deutsche und französische Kultur im Elsass”,
Illustrierte Elsässische Rundschau (1900, also published
separately).
16 This, of course, was true only when some possibility of capital-
istic development in the area in question was present.
17 On this point see, for instance, Dupin de St. André “L’ancienne
notes
135
église réformée de Tours. Les membres de l’église”, Bull. de la
soc. de l’hist. du Protest., 4, p. 10. Here again one might, espe-
cially from the Catholic point of view, look upon the desire for
emancipation from monastic or ecclesiastical control as the
dominant motive. But against that view stands not only the
judgment of contemporaries (including Rabelais), but also, for
instance, the qualms of conscience of the first national synods
of the Huguenots (for instance 1st Synod, C. partic. qu. 10 in
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