status naturæ, to free man from the power of
irrational impulses and his dependence on the world and on
nature. It attempted to subject man to the supremacy of a pur-
poseful will,
77
to bring his actions under constant self-control
with a careful consideration of their ethical consequences. Thus
it trained the monk, objectively, as a worker in the service
of the kingdom of God, and thereby further, subjectively,
assured the salvation of his soul. This active self-control, which
formed the end of the exercitia of St. Ignatius and of the rational
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
72
monastic virtues everywhere,
78
was also the most important
practical ideal of Puritanism.
79
In the deep contempt with which
the cool reserve of its adherents is contrasted, in the reports of the
trials of its martyrs, with the undisciplined blustering of the
noble prelates and officials
80
can be seen that respect for quiet
self-control which still distinguishes the best type of English
or American gentleman to-day.
81
To put it in our terms
82
: The
Puritan, like every rational type of asceticism, tried to enable a
man to maintain and act upon his constant motives, especially
those which it taught him itself, against the emotions. In this
formal psychological sense of the term it tried to make him into
a personality. Contrary to many popular ideas, the end of this
asceticism was to be able to lead an alert, intelligent life: the most
urgent task the destruction of spontaneous, impulsive enjoy-
ment, the most important means was to bring order into the
conduct of its adherents. All these important points are empha-
sized in the rules of Catholic monasticism as strongly
83
as in the
principles of conduct of the Calvinists.
84
On this methodical
control over the whole man rests the enormous expansive power
of both, especially the ability of Calvinism as against Lutheranism
to defend the cause of Protestantism as the Church militant.
On the other hand, the difference of the Calvinistic from the
mediæval asceticism is evident. It consisted in the disappearance
of the consilia evangelica and the accompanying transformation of
asceticism to activity within the world. It is not as though
Catholicism had restricted the methodical life to monastic cells.
This was by no means the case either in theory or in practice. On
the contrary, it has already been pointed out that, in spite of the
greater ethical moderation of Catholicism, an ethically
unsystematic life did not satisfy the highest ideals which it had
set up even for the life of the layman.
85
The tertiary order of St.
Francis was, for instance, a powerful attempt in the direction of
an ascetic penetration of everyday life, and, as we know, by no
means the only one. But, in fact, works like the Nachfolge Christi
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
73
show, through the manner in which their strong influence was
exerted, that the way of life preached in them was felt to be
something higher than the everyday morality which sufficed as a
minimum, and that this latter was not measured by such stand-
ards as Puritanism demanded. Moreover, the practical use made
of certain institutions of the Church, above all of indulgences
inevitably counteracted the tendencies toward systematic
worldly asceticism. For that reason it was not felt at the time of
the Reformation to be merely an unessential abuse, but one of
the most fundamental evils of the Church.
But the most important thing was the fact that the man who,
par excellence, lived a rational life in the religious sense was, and
remained, alone the monk. Thus asceticism, the more strongly it
gripped an individual, simply served to drive him farther away
from everyday life, because the holiest task was definitely to
surpass all worldly morality.
86
Luther, who was not in any sense
fulfilling any law of development, but acting upon his quite
personal experience, which was, though at first somewhat
uncertain in its practical consequences, later pushed farther by
the political situation, had repudiated that tendency, and Calvin-
ism simply took this over from him.
87
Sebastian Franck struck
the central characteristic of this type of religion when he saw the
significance of the Reformation in the fact that now every Chris-
tian had to be a monk all his life. The drain of asceticism from
everyday worldly life had been stopped by a dam, and those
passionately spiritual natures which had formerly supplied the
highest type of monk were now forced to pursue their ascetic
ideals within mundane occupations.
But in the course of its development Calvinism added some-
thing positive to this, the idea of the necessity of proving one’s
faith in worldly activity.
88
Therein it gave the broader groups of
religiously inclined people a positive incentive to asceticism. By
founding its ethic in the doctrine of predestination, it substi-
tuted for the spiritual aristocracy of monks outside of and above
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
74
the world the spiritual aristocracy of the predestined saints of
God within the world.
89
It was an aristocracy which, with its
character indelebilis, was divided from the eternally damned
remainder of humanity by a more impassable and in its invisibil-
ity more terrifying gulf,
90
than separated the monk of the Middle
Ages from the rest of the world about him, a gulf which pene-
trated all social relations with its sharp brutality. This conscious-
ness of divine grace of the elect and holy was accompanied by an
attitude toward the sin of one’s neighbour, not of sympathetic
understanding based on consciousness of one’s own weakness,
but of hatred and contempt for him as an enemy of God bearing
the signs of eternal damnation.
91
This sort of feeling was capable
of such intensity that it sometimes resulted in the formation of
sects. This was the case when, as in the Independent movement
of the seventeenth century, the genuine Calvinist doctrine that
the glory of God required the Church to bring the damned
under the law, was outweighed by the conviction that it was an
insult to God if an unregenerate soul should be admitted to His
house and partake in the sacraments, or even, as a minister,
administer them.
92
Thus, as a consequence of the doctrine of
proof, the Donatist idea of the Church appeared, as in the case of
the Calvinistic Baptists. The full logical consequence of the
demand for a pure Church, a community of those proved to be
in a state of grace, was not often drawn by forming sects. Modifi-
cations in the constitution of the Church resulted from the
attempt to separate regenerate from unregenerate Christians,
those who were from those who were not prepared for the
sacrament, to keep the government of the Church or some
other privilege in the hands of the former, and only to ordain
ministers of whom there was no question.
93
The norm by which it could always measure itself, of which it
was evidently in need, this asceticism naturally found in the
Bible. It is important to note that the well-known bibliocracy of
the Calvinists held the moral precepts of the Old Testament,
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
75
since it was fully as authentically revealed, on the same level of
esteem as those of the New. It was only necessary that they
should not obviously be applicable only to the historical circum-
stances of the Hebrews, or have been specifically denied by
Christ. For the believer, the law was an ideal though never quite
attainable norm
94
while Luther, on the other hand, originally had
prized freedom from subjugation to the law as a divine privilege
of the believer.
95
The influence of the God-fearing but perfectly
unemotional wisdom of the Hebrews, which is expressed in the
books most read by the Puritans, the Proverbs and the Psalms,
can be felt in their whole attitude toward life. In particular, its
rational suppression of the mystical, in fact the whole emotional
side of religion, has rightly been attributed by Sanford
96
to the
influence of the Old Testament. But this Old Testament rational-
ism was as such essentially of a small bourgeois, traditionalistic
type, and was mixed not only with the powerful pathos of the
prophets, but also with elements which encouraged the devel-
opment of a peculiarly emotional type of religion even in the
Middle Ages.
97
It was thus in the last analysis the peculiar, fun-
damentally ascetic, character of Calvinism itself which made it
select and assimilate those elements of Old Testament religion
which suited it best.
Now that systematization of ethical conduct which the asceti-
cism of Calvinistic Protestantism had in common with the
rational forms of life in the Catholic orders is expressed quite
superficially in the way in which the conscientious Puritan con-
tinually supervised
98
his own state of grace. To be sure, the
religious account-books in which sins, temptations, and pro-
gress made in grace were entered or tabulated were common to
both the most enthusiastic Reformed circles
99
and some parts of
modern Catholicism (especially in France), above all under the
influence of the Jesuits. But in Catholicism it served the purpose
of completeness of the confession, or gave the directeur de l’âme a
basis for his authoritarian guidance of the Christian (mostly
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
76
female). The Reformed Christian, however, felt his own pulse
with its aid. It is mentioned by all the moralists and theologians,
while Benjamin Franklin’s tabulated statistical book-keeping on
his progress in the different virtues is a classic example.
100
On
the other hand, the old mediæval (even ancient) idea of God’s
book-keeping is carried by Bunyan to the characteristically taste-
less extreme of comparing the relation of a sinner to his God
with that of customer and shopkeeper. One who has once got
into debt may well, by the product of all his virtuous acts, suc-
ceed in paying off the accumulated interest but never the
principal.
101
As he observed his own conduct, the later Puritan also
observed that of God and saw His finger in all the details of life.
And, contrary to the strict doctrine of Calvin, he always knew
why God took this or that measure. The process of sanctifying
life could thus almost take on the character of a business enter-
prise.
102
A thoroughgoing Christianization of the whole of life
was the consequence of this methodical quality of ethical con-
duct into which Calvinism as distinct from Lutheranism forced
men. That this rationality was decisive in its influence on prac-
tical life must always be borne in mind in order rightly to under-
stand the influence of Calvinism. On the one hand we can see
that it took this element to exercise such an influence at all. But
other faiths as well necessarily had a similar influence when their
ethical motives were the same in this decisive point, the doctrine
of proof.
So far we have considered only Calvinism, and have thus
assumed the doctrine of predestination as the dogmatic back-
ground of the Puritan morality in the sense of methodically
rationalized ethical conduct. This could be done because the
influence of that dogma in fact extended far beyond the single
religious group which held in all respects strictly to Calvinistic
principles, the Presbyterians. Not only the Independent Savoy
Declaration of 1658, but also the Baptist Confession of Hanserd
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
77
Knolly of 1689 contained it, and it had a place within Method-
ism. Although John Wesley, the great organizing genius of the
movement, was a believer in the universality of Grace, one of the
great agitators of the first generation of Methodists and their
most consistent thinker, Whitefield, was an adherent of the doc-
trine. The same was true of the circle around Lady Huntingdon,
which for a time had considerable influence. It was this doctrine
in its magnificent consistency which, in the fateful epoch of the
seventeenth century, upheld the belief of the militant defenders
of the holy life that they were weapons in the hand of God, and
executors of His providential will.
103
Moreover, it prevented a
premature collapse into a purely utilitarian doctrine of good
works in this world which would never have been capable of
motivating such tremendous sacrifices for non-rational ideal
ends.
The combination of faith in absolutely valid norms with abso-
lute determinism and the complete transcendentality of God was
in its way a product of great genius. At the same time it was, in
principle, very much more modern than the milder doctrine,
making greater concessions to the feelings which subjected God
to the moral law. Above all, we shall see again and again how
fundamental is the idea of proof for our problem. Since its prac-
tical significance as a psychological basis for rational morality
could be studied in such purity in the doctrine of predestination,
it was best to start there with the doctrine in its most consistent
form. But it forms a recurring framework for the connection
between faith and conduct in the denominations to be studied
below. Within the Protestant movement the consequences which
it inevitably had for the ascetic tendencies of the conduct of its
fi
rst adherents form in principle the strongest antithesis to the
relative moral helplessness of Lutheranism. The Lutheran gratia
amissibilis, which could always be regained through penitent
contrition evidently, in itself, contained no sanction for what
is for us the most important result of ascetic Protestantism, a
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
78
systematic rational ordering of the moral life as a whole.
104
The
Lutheran faith thus left the spontaneous vitality of impulsive
action and naïve emotion more nearly unchanged. The motive
to constant self-control and thus to a deliberate regulation of
one’s own life, which the gloomy doctrine of Calvinism gave,
was lacking. A religious genius like Luther could live in this
atmosphere of openness and freedom without difficulty and, so
long as his enthusiasm was powerful enough, without danger of
falling back into the status naturalis. That simple, sensitive, and
peculiarly emotional form of piety, which is the ornament of
many of the highest types of Lutherans, like their free and spon-
taneous morality, finds few parallels in genuine Puritanism, but
many more in the mild Anglicanism of such men as Hooker,
Chillingsworth, etc. But for the everyday Lutheran, even the able
one, nothing was more certain than that he was only temporar-
ily, as long as the single confession or sermon affected him,
raised above the status naturalis.
There was a great difference which was very striking to con-
temporaries between the moral standards of the courts of
Reformed and of Lutheran princes, the latter often being
degraded by drunkenness and vulgarity.
105
Moreover, the help-
lessness of the Lutheran clergy, with their emphasis on faith
alone, against the ascetic Baptist movement, is well known. The
typical German quality often called good nature (Gemütlichkeit) or
naturalness contrasts strongly, even in the facial expressions of
people, with the effects of that thorough destruction of the spon-
taneity of the status naturalis in the Anglo-American atmosphere,
which Germans are accustomed to judge unfavourably as nar-
rowness, unfreeness, and inner constraint. But the differences of
conduct, which are very striking, have clearly originated in the
lesser degree of ascetic penetration of life in Lutheranism as
distinguished from Calvinism. The antipathy of every spon-
taneous child of nature to everything ascetic is expressed in
those feelings. The fact is that Lutheranism, on account of its
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
79
doctrine of grace, lacked a psychological sanction of systematic
conduct to compel the methodical rationalization of life.
This sanction, which conditions the ascetic character of
religion, could doubtless in itself have been furnished by various
different religious motives, as we shall soon see. The Calvinistic
doctrine of predestination was only one of several possibilities.
But nevertheless we have become convinced that in its way it had
not only a quite unique consistency, but that its psychological
effect was extraordinarily powerful.
106
In comparison with it the
non-Calvinistic ascetic movements, considered purely from the
view-point of the religious motivation of asceticism, form an
attenuation of the inner consistency and power of Calvinism.
But even in the actual historical development the situation
was, for the most part, such that the Calvinistic form of asceti-
cism was either imitated by the other ascetic movements or used
as a source of inspiration or of comparison in the development
of their divergent principles. Where, in spite of a different
doctrinal basis, similar ascetic features have appeared, this has
generally been the result of Church organization. Of this we shall
come to speak in another connection.
107
B. PIETISM
Historically the doctrine of predestination is also the starting-
point of the ascetic movement usually known as Pietism. In so
far as the movement remained within the Reformed Church, it is
almost impossible to draw the line between Pietistic and non-
Pietistic Calvinists.
108
Almost all the leading representatives of
Puritanism are sometimes classed among the Pietists. It is even
quite legitimate to look upon the whole connection between
predestination and the doctrine of proof, with its fundamental
interest in the attainment of the certitudo salutis as discussed above,
as in itself a Pietistic development of Calvin’s original doctrines.
The occurrence of ascetic revivals within the Reformed
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
80
Church was, especially in Holland, regularly accompanied by a
regeneration of the doctrine of predestination which had been
temporarily forgotten or not strictly held to. Hence for England
it is not customary to use the term Pietism at all.
109
But even the Continental (Dutch and Lower Rhenish) Pietism
in the Reformed Church was, at least fundamentally, just as
much a simple intensification of the Reformed asceticism as, for
instance, the doctrines of Bailey. The emphasis was placed so
strongly on the praxis pietatis that doctrinal orthodoxy was pushed
into the background; at times, in fact, it seemed quite a matter of
indifference. Those predestined for grace could occasionally be
subject to dogmatic error as well as to other sins and experience
showed that often those Christians who were quite uninstructed
in the theology of the schools exhibited the fruits of faith most
clearly, while on the other hand it became evident that mere
knowledge of theology by no means guaranteed the proof of
faith through conduct.
110
Thus election could not be proved by theological learning at
all.
111
Hence Pietism, with a deep distrust of the Church of the
theologians,
112
to which—this is characteristic of it—it still
belonged officially, began to gather the adherents of the praxis
pietatis in conventicles removed from the world.
113
It wished to
make the invisible Church of the elect visible on this earth.
Without going so far as to form a separate sect, its members
attempted to live, in this community, a life freed from all the
temptations of the world and in all its details dictated by God’s
will, and thus to be made certain of their own rebirth by external
signs manifested in their daily conduct. Thus the ecclesiola of the
true converts—this was common to all genuinely Pietistic
groups—wished, by means of intensified asceticism, to enjoy
the blissfulness of community with God in this life.
Now this latter tendency had something closely related to the
Lutheran unio mystica, and very often led to a greater emphasis on
the emotional side of religion than was acceptable to orthodox
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
81
Calvinism. In fact this may, from our view-point, be said to be
the decisive characteristic of the Pietism which developed
within the Reformed Church. For this element of emotion,
which was originally quite foreign to Calvinism, but on the
other hand related to certain mediæval forms of religion, led
religion in practice to strive for the enjoyment of salvation
in this world rather than to engage in the ascetic struggle for
certainty about the future world. Moreover, the emotion was
capable of such intensity, that religion took on a positively hys-
terical character, resulting in the alternation which is familiar
from examples without number and neuropathologically under-
standable, of half-conscious states of religious ecstasy with
periods of nervous exhaustion, which were felt as abandonment
by God. The effect was the direct opposite of the strict and
temperate discipline under which men were placed by the sys-
tematic life of holiness of the Puritan. It meant a weakening of
the inhibitions which protected the rational personality of the
Calvinist from his passions.
114
Similarly it was possible for the
Calvinistic idea of the depravity of the flesh, taken emotionally,
for instance in the form of the so-called worm-feeling, to lead
to a deadening of enterprise in worldly activity.
115
Even the
doctrine of predestination could lead to fatalism if, contrary to
the predominant tendencies of rational Calvinism, it were made
the object of emotional contemplation.
116
Finally, the desire to
separate the elect from the world could, with a strong emotional
intensity, lead to a sort of monastic community life of half-
communistic character, as the history of Pietism, even within the
Reformed Church, has shown again and again.
117
But so long as this extreme effect, conditioned by this
emphasis on emotion, did not appear, as long as Reformed
Pietism strove to make sure of salvation within the everyday
routine of life in a worldly calling, the practical effect of Pietistic
principles was an even stricter ascetic control of conduct in the
calling, which provided a still more solid religious basis for the
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
82
ethic of the calling, than the mere worldly respectability of
the normal Reformed Christian, which was felt by the superior
Pietist to be a second-rate Christianity. The religious aristocracy
of the elect, which developed in every form of Calvinistic asceti-
cism, the more seriously it was taken, the more surely, was then
organized, in Holland, on a voluntary basis in the form of con-
venticles within the Church. In English Puritanism, on the other
hand, it led partly to a virtual differentiation between active and
passive Christians within the Church organization, and partly, as
has been shown above, to the formation of sects.
On the other hand, the development of German Pietism from
a Lutheran basis, with which the names of Spener, Francke, and
Zinzendorf are connected, led away from the doctrine of pre-
destination. But at the same time it was by no means outside the
body of ideas of which that dogma formed the logical climax, as
is especially attested by Spener’s own account of the influence
which English and Dutch Pietism had upon him, and is shown
by the fact that Bailey was read in his first conventicles.
118
From our special point of view, at any rate, Pietism meant
simply the penetration of methodically controlled and super-
vised, thus of ascetic, conduct into the non-Calvinistic denomin-
ations.
119
But Lutheranism necessarily felt this rational asceticism
to be a foreign element, and the lack of consistency in German
Pietistic doctrines was the result of the difficulties growing out
of that fact. As a dogmatic basis of systematic religious conduct
Spener combines Lutheran ideas with the specifically Calvinistic
doctrine of good works as such which are undertaken with the
“intention of doing honour to God”.
120
He also has a faith,
suggestive of Calvinism, in the possibility of the elect attaining a
relative degree of Christian perfection.
121
But the theory lacked
consistency. Spener, who was strongly influenced by the mys-
tics,
122
attempted, in a rather uncertain but essentially Lutheran
manner, rather to describe the systematic type of Christian con-
duct which was essential to even his form of Pietism than to
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
83
justify it. He did not derive the certitudo salutis from sanctification;
instead of the idea of proof, he adopted Luther’s somewhat loose
connection between faith and works, which has been discussed
above.
123
But again and again, in so far as the rational and ascetic elem-
ent of Pietism outweighed the emotional, the ideas essential to
our thesis maintained their place. These were: (1) that the
methodical development of one’s own state of grace to a higher
and higher degree of certainty and perfection in terms of the law
was a sign of grace;
124
and (2) that “God’s Providence works
through those in such a state of perfection”, i.e. in that He gives
them His signs if they wait patiently and deliberate methodic-
ally.
125
Labour in a calling was also the ascetic activity par excellence
for A. H. Francke;
126
that God Himself blessed His chosen ones
through the success of their labours was as undeniable to him as
we shall find it to have been to the Puritans.
And as a substitute for the double decree Pietism worked out
ideas which, in a way essentially similar to Calvinism, though
milder, established an aristocracy of the elect
127
resting on God’s
especial grace, with all the psychological results pointed out
above. Among them belongs, for instance, the so-called doctrine
of Terminism,
128
which was generally (though unjustly) attrib-
uted to Pietism by its opponents. It assumes that grace is offered
to all men, but for everyone either once at a definite moment in
his life or at some moment for the last time.
129
Anyone who let
that moment pass was beyond the help of the universality of
grace; he was in the same situation as those neglected by God in
the Calvinistic doctrine. Quite close to this theory was the idea
which Francke took from his personal experience, and which
was very widespread in Pietism, one may even say predominant,
that grace could only become effective under certain unique and
peculiar circumstances, namely, after previous repentance.
130
Since, according to Pietist doctrine, not everyone was capable of
such experiences, those who, in spite of the use of the ascetic
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
84
methods recommended by the Pietists to bring it about, did not
attain it, remained in the eyes of the regenerate a sort of passive
Christian. On the other hand, by the creation of a method to
induce repentance even the attainment of divine grace became in
effect an object of rational human activity.
Moreover, the antagonism to the private confessional, which,
though not shared by all—for instance, not by Francke—was
characteristic of many Pietists, especially, as the repeated ques-
tions in Spener show, of Pietist pastors, resulted from this
aristocracy of grace. This antagonism helped to weaken its ties
with Lutheranism. The visible effects on conduct of grace gained
through repentance formed a necessary criterion for admission
to absolution; hence it was impossible to let contritio alone
suffice.
131
Zinzendorf ’s conception of his own religious position, even
though it vacillated in the face of attacks from orthodoxy,
tended generally toward the instrumental idea. Beyond that,
however, the doctrinal standpoint of this remarkable religious
dilettante, as Ritschl calls him, is scarcely capable of clear for-
mulation in the points of importance for us.
132
He repeatedly
designated himself a representative of Pauline-Lutheran Christi-
anity; hence he opposed the Pietistic type associated with
Jansen with its adherence to the law. But the Brotherhood itself
in practice upheld, as early as its Protocol of August 12, 1729, a
standpoint which in many respects closely resembled that of the
Calvinistic aristocracy of the elect.
133
And in spite of his
repeated avowals of Lutheranism,
134
he permitted and encour-
aged it. The famous stand of attributing the Old Testament to
Christ, taken on November 12, 1741, was the outward expres-
sion of somewhat the same attitude. However, of the three
branches of the Brotherhood, both the Calvinistic and the
Moravian accepted the Reformed ethics in essentials from the
beginning. And even Zinzendorf followed the Puritans in
expressing to John Wesley the opinion that even though a man
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
85
himself could not, others could know his state of grace by his
conduct.
135
But on the other hand, in the peculiar piety of Herrnhut, the
emotional element held a very prominent place. In particular
Zinzendorf himself continually attempted to counteract the ten-
dency to ascetic sanctification in the Puritan sense
136
and to turn
the interpretation of good works in a Lutheran direction.
137
Also
under the influence of the repudiation of conventicles and the
retention of the confession, there developed an essentially
Lutheran dependence on the sacraments. Moreover, Zinzendorf ’s
peculiar principle that the childlikeness of religious feeling was a
sign of its genuineness, as well as the use of the lot as a means of
revealing God’s will, strongly counteracted the influence of
rationality in conduct. On the whole, within the sphere of influ-
ence of the Count,
138
the anti-rational, emotional elements pre-
dominated much more in the religion of the Herrnhuters than
elsewhere in Pietism.
139
The connection between morality and
the forgiveness of sins in Spangenberg’s Idea fides fratrum is as
loose
140
as in Lutheranism generally. Zinzendorf ’s repudiation of
the Methodist pursuit of perfection is part, here as everywhere,
of his fundamentally eudæmonistic ideal of having men experi-
ence eternal bliss (he calls it happiness) emotionally in the pres-
ent,
141
instead of encouraging them by rational labour to make
sure of it in the next world.
142
Nevertheless, the idea that the most important value of the
Brotherhood as contrasted with other Churches lay in an active
Christian life, in missionary, and, which was brought into con-
nection with it, in professional work in a calling,
143
remained a
vital force with them. In addition, the practical rationalization of
life from the standpoint of utility was very essential to Zinzen-
dorf ’s philosophy.
144
It was derived for him, as for other Pietists,
on the one hand from his decided dislike of philosophical specu-
lation as dangerous to faith, and his corresponding preference
for empirical knowledge;
145
on the other hand, from the shrewd
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
86
common sense of the professional missionary. The Brotherhood
was, as a great mission centre, at the same time a business
enterprise. Thus it led its members into the paths of worldly
asceticism, which everywhere first seeks for tasks and then car-
ries them out carefully and systematically. However, the glorifi-
cation of the apostolic poverty, of the disciples
146
chosen by God
through predestination, which was derived from the example of
the apostles as missionaries, formed another obstacle. It meant in
effect a partial revival of the consilia evangelica. The development of
a rational economic ethic similar to the Calvinistic was certainly
retarded by these factors, even though, as the development of the
Baptist movement shows, it was not impossible, but on the con-
trary subjectively strongly encouraged by the idea of work solely
for the sake of the calling.
All in all, when we consider German Pietism from the point of
view important for us, we must admit a vacillation and
uncertainty in the religious basis of its asceticism which makes it
definitely weaker than the iron consistency of Calvinism, and
which is partly the result of Lutheran influences and partly of its
emotional character. To be sure, it is very one-sided to make this
emotional element the distinguishing characteristic of Pietism as
opposed to Lutheranism.
147
But compared to Calvinism, the
rationalization of life was necessarily less intense because the
pressure of occupation with a state of grace which had continu-
ally to be proved, and which was concerned for the future in
eternity, was diverted to the present emotional state. The place
of the self-confidence which the elect sought to attain, and con-
tinually to renew in restless and successful work at his calling,
was taken by an attitude of humility and abnegation.
148
This in
turn was partly the result of emotional stimulus directed solely
toward spiritual experience; partly of the Lutheran institution of
the confession, which, though it was often looked upon with
serious doubts by Pietism, was still generally tolerated.
149
All this
shows the influence of the peculiarly Lutheran conception of
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
87
salvation by the forgiveness of sins and not by practical sanctifi-
cation. In place of the systematic rational struggle to attain and
retain certain knowledge of future (otherworldly) salvation
comes here the need to feel reconciliation and community with
God now. Thus the tendency of the pursuit of present enjoyment
to hinder the rational organization of economic life, depending
as it does on provision for the future, has in a certain sense a
parallel in the field of religious life.
Evidently, then, the orientation of religious needs to present
emotional satisfaction could not develop so powerful a motive to
rationalize worldly activity, as the need of the Calvinistic elect
for proof with their exclusive preoccupation with the beyond.
On the other hand, it was considerably more favourable to the
methodical penetration of conduct with religion than the trad-
itionalistic faith of the orthodox Lutheran, bound as it was to the
Word and the sacraments. On the whole Pietism from Francke
and Spener to Zinzendorf tended toward increasing emphasis on
the emotional side. But this was not in any sense the expression
of an immanent law of development. The differences resulted
from differences of the religious (and social) environments from
which the leaders came. We cannot enter into that here, nor can
we discuss how the peculiarities of German Pietism have affected
its social and geographical extension.
150
We must again remind
ourselves that this emotional Pietism of course shades off into
the way of life of the Puritan elect by quite gradual stages. If we
can, at least provisionally, point out any practical consequence of
the difference, we may say that the virtues favoured by Pietism
were more those on the one hand of the faithful official, clerk,
labourer, or domestic worker,
151
and on the other of the pre-
dominantly patriarchal employer with a pious condescension
(in Zinzendorf ’s manner). Calvinism, in comparison, appears to
be more closely related to the hard legalism and the active enter-
prise of bourgeois-capitalistic entrepreneurs.
152
Finally, the
purely emotional form of Pietism is, as Ritschl
153
has pointed
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
88
out, a religious dilettantism for the leisure classes. However far
this characterization falls short of being exhaustive, it helps to
explain certain differences in the character (including the
economic character) of peoples which have been under the
influence of one or the other of these two ascetic movements.
C. METHODISM
The combination of an emotional but still ascetic type of religion
with increasing indifference to or repudiation of the dogmatic
basis of Calvinistic asceticism is characteristic also of the Anglo-
American movement corresponding to Continental Pietism,
namely Methodism.
154
The name in itself shows what impressed
contemporaries as characteristic of its adherents: the methodical,
systematic nature of conduct for the purpose of attaining the
certitudo salutis. This was from the beginning the centre of
religious aspiration for this movement also, and remained so. In
spite of all the differences, the undoubted relationship to certain
branches of German Pietism
155
is shown above all by the fact that
the method was used primarily to bring about the emotional act
of conversion. And the emphasis on feeling, in John Wesley
awakened by Moravian and Lutheran influences, led Methodism,
which from the beginning saw its mission among the masses, to
take on a strongly emotional character, especially in America.
The attainment of repentance under certain circumstances
involved an emotional struggle of such intensity as to lead to the
most terrible ecstasies, which in America often took place in a
public meeting. This formed the basis of a belief in the
undeserved possession of divine grace and at the same time of an
immediate consciousness of justification and forgiveness.
Now this emotional religion entered into a peculiar alliance,
containing no small inherent difficulties, with the ascetic ethics
which had for good and all been stamped with rationality
by Puritanism. For one thing, unlike Calvinism, which held
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
89
everything emotional to be illusory, the only sure basis for the
certitudo salutis was in principle held to be a pure feeling of abso-
lute certainty of forgiveness, derived immediately from the tes-
timony of the spirit, the coming of which could be definitely
placed to the hour. Added to this is Wesley’s doctrine of sancti-
fi
cation which, though a decided departure from the orthodox
doctrine, is a logical development of it. According to it, one
reborn in this manner can, by virtue of the divine grace already
working in him, even in this life attain sanctification, the con-
sciousness of perfection in the sense of freedom from sin, by a
second, generally separate and often sudden spiritual trans-
formation. However difficult of attainment this end is, generally
not till toward the end of one’s life, it must inevitably be
sought, because it finally guarantees the certitudo salutis and sub-
stitutes a serene confidence for the sullen worry of the Calvin-
ist.
156
And it distinguishes the true convert in his own eyes and
those of others by the fact that sin at least no longer has power
over him.
In spite of the great significance of self-evident feeling,
righteous conduct according to the law was thus naturally also
adhered to. Whenever Wesley attacked the emphasis on works of
his time, it was only to revive the old Puritan doctrine that works
are not the cause, but only the means of knowing one’s state of
grace, and even this only when they are performed solely for the
glory of God. Righteous conduct alone did not suffice, as he had
found out for himself. The feeling of grace was necessary in
addition. He himself sometimes described works as a condition
of grace, and in the Declaration of August 9, 1771,
157
he
emphasized that he who performed no good works was not a
true believer. In fact, the Methodists have always maintained that
they did not differ from the Established Church in doctrine, but
only in religious practice. This emphasis on the fruits of belief
was mostly justified by 1 John iii. 9; conduct is taken as a clear
sign of rebirth.
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
90
But in spite of all that there were difficulties.
158
For those
Methodists who were adherents of the doctrine of predestin-
ation, to think of the certitudo salutis as appearing in the immediate
feeling
159
of grace and perfection instead of the consciousness of
grace which grew out of ascetic conduct in continual proof of
faith—since then the certainty of the perservantia depended only
on the single act of repentance—meant one of two things. For
weak natures there was a fatalistic interpretation of Christian
freedom, and with it the breakdown of methodical conduct; or,
where this path was rejected, the self-confidence of the right-
eous man
160
reached untold heights, an emotional intensifica-
tion of the Puritan type. In the face of the attacks of opponents,
the attempt was made to meet these consequences. On the one
hand by increased emphasis on the normative authority of the
Bible and the indispensability of proof ;
161
on the other by, in
effect, strengthening Wesley’s anti-Calvinistic faction within the
movement with its doctrine that grace could be lost. The strong
Lutheran influences to which Wesley was exposed
162
through
the Moravians strengthened this tendency and increased the
uncertainty of the religious basis of the Methodist ethics.
163
In
the end only the concept of regeneration, an emotional certainty
of salvation as the immediate result of faith, was definitely main-
tained as the indispensable foundation of grace; and with it sanc-
tification, resulting in (at least virtual) freedom from the power
of sin, as the consequent proof of grace. The significance of
external means of grace, especially the sacraments, was cor-
respondingly diminished. In any case, the general awakening
which followed Methodism everywhere, for example in New
England, meant a victory for the doctrine of grace and
election.
164
Thus from our view-point the Methodist ethic appears to rest
on a foundation of uncertainty similar to Pietism. But the aspir-
ation to the higher life, the second blessedness, served it as a sort
of makeshift for the doctrine of predestination. Moreover, being
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
91
English in origin, its ethical practice was closely related to that of
English Puritanism, the revival of which it aspired to be.
The emotional act of conversion was methodically induced.
And after it was attained there did not follow a pious enjoyment
of community with God, after the manner of the emotional
Pietism of Zinzendorf, but the emotion, once awakened, was
directed into a rational struggle for perfection. Hence the emo-
tional character of its faith did not lead to a spiritualized religion
of feeling like German Pietism. It has already been shown by
Schneckenburger that this fact was connected with the less
intensive development of the sense of sin (partly directly on
account of the emotional experience of conversion), and this has
remained an accepted point in the discussion of Methodism. The
fundamentally Calvinistic character of its religious feeling here
remained decisive. The emotional excitement took the form of
enthusiasm which was only occasionally, but then powerfully
stirred, but which by no means destroyed the otherwise rational
character of conduct.
165
The regeneration of Methodism thus
created only a supplement to the pure doctrine of works, a
religious basis for ascetic conduct after the doctrine of pre-
destination had been given up. The signs given by conduct
which formed an indispensable means of ascertaining true con-
version, even its condition as Wesley occasionally says, were in
fact just the same as those of Calvinism. As a late product
166
we
can, in the following discussion, generally neglect Methodism,
as it added nothing new to the development
167
of the idea of
calling.
D. THE BAPTIST SECTS
The Pietism of the Continent of Europe and the Methodism of
the Anglo-Saxon peoples are, considered both in their content of
ideas and their historical significance, secondary movements.
168
On the other hand, we find a second independent source of
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
92
Protestant asceticism besides Calvinism in the Baptist movement
and the sects
169
which, in the course of the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, came directly from it or adopted its forms of
religious thought, the Baptists, Mennonites, and, above all, the
Quakers.
170
With them we approach religious groups whose eth-
ics rest upon a basis differing in principle from the Calvinistic
doctrine. The following sketch, which only emphasizes what is
important for us, can give no true impression of the diversity of
this movement. Again we lay the principal emphasis on the
development in the older capitalistic countries.
The feature of all these communities, which is both historic-
ally and in principle most important, but whose influence on the
development of culture can only be made quite clear in a some-
what different connection, is something with which we are
already familiar, the believer’s Church.
171
This means that the
religious community, the visible Church in the language of the
Reformation Churches,
172
was no longer looked upon as a sort
of trust foundation for supernatural ends, an institution, neces-
sarily including both the just and the unjust, whether for
increasing the glory of God (Calvinistic) or as a medium for
bringing the means of salvation to men (Catholic and Lutheran),
but solely as a community of personal believers of the reborn,
and only these. In other words, not as a Church but as a sect.
173
This is all that the principle, in itself purely external, that only
adults who have personally gained their own faith should be
baptized, is meant to symbolize.
174
The justification through this
faith was for the Baptists, as they have insistently repeated in all
religious discussions, radically different from the idea of work in
the world in the service of Christ, such as dominated the ortho-
dox dogma of the older Protestantism.
175
It consisted rather in
taking spiritual possession of His gift of salvation. But this
occurred through individual revelation, by the working of the
Divine Spirit in the individual, and only in that way. It was
offered to everyone, and it sufficed to wait for the Spirit, and not
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
93
to resist its coming by a sinful attachment to the world. The
significance of faith in the sense of knowledge of the doctrines
of the Church, but also in that of a repentant search for divine
grace, was consequently quite minimized, and there took place,
naturally with great modifications, a renaissance of Early Chris-
tian pneumatic doctrines. For instance, the sect to which Menno
Simons in his Fondamentboek (1539) gave the first reasonably con-
sistent doctrine, wished, like the other Baptist sects, to be the
true blameless Church of Christ; like the apostolic community,
consisting entirely of those personally awakened and called by
God. Those who have been born again, and they alone, are breth-
ren of Christ, because they, like Him, have been created in spirit
directly by God.
176
A strict avoidance of the world, in the sense of
all not strictly necessary intercourse with worldly people,
together with the strictest bibliocracy in the sense of taking the
life of the first generations of Christians as a model, were the
results for the first Baptist communities, and this principle of
avoidance of the world never quite disappeared so long as the
old spirit remained alive.
177
As a permanent possession, the Baptist sects retained from
these dominating motives of their early period a principle with
which, on a somewhat different foundation, we have already
become acquainted in Calvinism, and the fundamental import-
ance of which will again and again come out. They absolutely
repudiated all idolatry of the flesh, as a detraction from the
reverence due to God alone.
178
The Biblical way of life was con-
ceived by the first Swiss and South German Baptists with a radic-
alism similar to that of the young St. Francis, as a sharp break
with all the enjoyment of life, a life modelled directly on that of
the Apostles. And, in truth, the life of many of the earlier Baptists
is reminiscent of that of St. Giles. But this strict observation of
Biblical precepts
179
was not on very secure foundations in its
connection with the pneumatic character of the faith. What God
had revealed to the prophets and apostles was not all that He
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
94
could and would reveal. On the contrary, the continued life of
the Word, not as a written document, but as the force of the
Holy Spirit working in daily life, which speaks directly to any
individual who is willing to hear, was the sole characteristic of
the true Church. That, as Schwenkfeld taught as against Luther
and later Fox against the Presbyterians, was the testimony of the
early Christian communities. From this idea of the continuance
of revelation developed the well-known doctrine, later consist-
ently worked out by the Quakers, of the (in the last analysis
decisive) significance of the inner testimony of the Spirit in
reason and conscience. This did away, not with the authority,
but with the sole authority, of the Bible, and started a develop-
ment which in the end radically eliminated all that remained of
the doctrine of salvation through the Church; for the Quakers
even with Baptism and the Communion.
180
The Baptist denominations along with the predestinationists,
especially the strict Calvinists, carried out the most radical
devaluation of all sacraments as means to salvation, and thus
accomplished the religious rationalization of the world in its
most extreme form. Only the inner light of continual revelation
could enable one truly to understand even the Biblical revela-
tions of God.
181
On the other hand, at least according to the
Quaker doctrine which here drew the logical conclusion, its
effects could be extended to people who had never known reve-
lation in its Biblical form. The proposition extra ecclesiam nulla salus
held only for this invisible Church of those illuminated by the
Spirit. Without the inner light, the natural man, even the man
guided by natural reason,
182
remained purely a creature of the
fl
esh, whose godlessness was condemned by the Baptists, includ-
ing the Quakers, almost even more harshly than by the Calvin-
ists. On the other hand, the new birth caused by the Spirit, if we
wait for it and open our hearts to it, may, since it is divinely
caused, lead to a state of such complete conquest of the power of
sin,
183
that relapses, to say nothing of the loss of the state of
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
95
grace, become practically impossible. However, as in Methodism
at a later time, the attainment of that state was not thought of as
the rule, but rather the degree of perfection of the individual was
subject to development.
But all Baptist communities desired to be pure Churches in the
sense of the blameless conduct of their members. A sincere
repudiation of the world and its interests, and unconditional
submission to God as speaking through the conscience, were the
only unchallengeable signs of true rebirth, and a corresponding
type of conduct was thus indispensable to salvation. And hence
the gift of God’s grace could not be earned, but only one who
followed the dictates of his conscience could be justified in con-
sidering himself reborn. Good works in this sense were a causa
sine qua non. As we see, this last reasoning of Barclay, to whose
exposition we have adhered, was again the equivalent in practice
of the Calvinistic doctrine, and was certainly developed under
the influence of the Calvinistic asceticism, which surrounded the
Baptist sects in England and the Netherlands. George Fox devoted
the whole of his early missionary activity to the preaching of its
earnest and sincere adoption.
But, since predestination was rejected, the peculiarly rational
character of Baptist morality rested psychologically above all on
the idea of expectant waiting for the Spirit to descend, which
even to-day is characteristic of the Quaker meeting, and is well
analysed by Barclay. The purpose of this silent waiting is to over-
come everything impulsive and irrational, the passions and sub-
jective interests of the natural man. He must be stilled in order to
create that deep repose of the soul in which alone the word of
God can be heard. Of course, this waiting might result in hyster-
ical conditions, prophecy, and, as long as eschatological hopes
survived, under certain circumstances even in an outbreak of
chiliastic enthusiasm, as is possible in all similar types of
religion. That actually happened in the movement which went to
pieces in Münster.
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
96
But in so far as Baptism affected the normal workaday world,
the idea that God only speaks when the flesh is silent evidently
meant an incentive to the deliberate weighing of courses of
action and their careful justification in terms of the individual
conscience.
184
The later Baptist communities, most particularly
the Quakers, adopted this quiet, moderate, eminently conscien-
tious character of conduct. The radical elimination of magic
from the world allowed no other psychological course than the
practice of worldly asceticism. Since these communities would
have nothing to do with the political powers and their doings,
the external result also was the penetration of life in the calling
with these ascetic virtues. The leaders of the earliest Baptist
movement were ruthlessly radical in their rejection of worldli-
ness. But naturally, even in the first generation, the strictly apos-
tolic way of life was not maintained as absolutely essential to the
proof of rebirth for everyone. Well-to-do bourgeois there were,
even in this generation and even before Menno, who definitely
defended the practical worldly virtues and the system of private
property; the strict morality of the Baptists had turned in prac-
tice into the path prepared by the Calvinistic ethic.
185
This was
simply because the road to the otherworldly monastic form of
asceticism had been closed as unbiblical and savouring of salva-
tion by works since Luther, whom the Baptists also followed in
this respect.
Nevertheless, apart from the half-communistic communities
of the early period, one Baptist sect, the so-called Dunckards
(Tunker, dompelaers), has to this day maintained its condemnation
of education and of every form of possession beyond that
indispensable to life. And even Barclay looks upon the obligation
to one’s calling not in Calvinistic or even Lutheran terms, but
rather Thomistically, as naturali ratione, the necessary consequence
of the believers having to live in the world.
186
This attitude meant a weakening of the Calvinistic conception
of the calling similar to those of Spener and the German Pietists.
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
97
But, on the other hand, the intensity of interest in economic
occupations was considerably increased by various factors at
work in the Baptist sects. In the first place, by the refusal to
accept office in the service of the State, which originated as a
religious duty following from the repudiation of everything
worldly. After its abandonment in principle it still remained, at
least for the Mennonites and Quakers, effective in practice,
because the strict refusal to bear arms or to take oaths formed a
sufficient disqualification for office. Hand in hand with it in all
Baptists’ denominations went an invincible antagonism to any
sort of aristocratic way of life. Partly, as with the Calvinists, it was
a consequence of the prohibition of all idolatry of the flesh,
partly a result of the aforementioned unpolitical or even anti-
political principles. The whole shrewd and conscientious ration-
ality of Baptist conduct was thus forced into non-political
callings.
At the same time, the immense importance which was attrib-
uted by the Baptist doctrine of salvation to the rôle of the con-
science as the revelation of God to the individual gave their
conduct in worldly callings a character which was of the greatest
significance for the development of the spirit of capitalism. We
shall have to postpone its consideration until later, and it can
then be studied only in so far as this is possible without entering
into the whole political and social ethics of Protestant asceticism.
But, to anticipate this much, we have already called attention to
that most important principle of the capitalistic ethic which is
generally formulated “honesty is the best policy”.
187
Its classical
document is the tract of Franklin quoted above. And even in the
judgment of the seventeenth century the specific form of the
worldly asceticism of the Baptists, especially the Quakers, lay in
the practical adoption of this maxim.
188
On the other hand, we
shall expect to find that the influence of Calvinism was exerted
more in the direction of the liberation of energy for private
acquisition. For in spite of all the formal legalism of the elect,
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
98
Goethe’s remark in fact applied often enough to the Calvinist:
“The man of action is always ruthless; no one has a conscience
but an observer.”
189
A further important element which promoted the intensity of
the worldly asceticism of the Baptist denominations can in its
full significance also be considered only in another connection.
Nevertheless, we may anticipate a few remarks on it to justify the
order of presentation we have chosen. We have quite deliberately
not taken as a starting-point the objective social institutions of
the older Protestant Churches, and their ethical influences, espe-
cially not the very important Church discipline. We have pre-
ferred rather to take the results which subjective adoption of an
ascetic faith might have had in the conduct of the individual.
This was not only because this side of the thing has previously
received far less attention than the other, but also because the
effect of Church discipline was by no means always a similar
one. On the contrary, the ecclesiastical supervision of the life of
the individual, which, as it was practised in the Calvinistic State
Churches, almost amounted to an inquisition, might even retard
that liberation of individual powers which was conditioned by
the rational ascetic pursuit of salvation, and in some cases actu-
ally did so.
The mercantilistic regulations of the State might develop
industries, but not, or certainly not alone, the spirit of capital-
ism; where they assumed a despotic, authoritarian character,
they to a large extent directly hindered it. Thus a similar effect
might well have resulted from ecclesiastical regimentation when
it became excessively despotic. It enforced a particular type of
external conformity, but in some cases weakened the subjective
motives of rational conduct. Any discussion of this point
190
must
take account of the great difference between the results of the
authoritarian moral discipline of the Established Churches and
the corresponding discipline in the sects which rested on volun-
tary submission. That the Baptist movement everywhere and in
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
99
principle founded sects and not Churches was certainly as
favourable to the intensity of their asceticism as was the case, to
differing degrees, with those Calvinistic, Methodist, and Pietist
communities which were driven by their situations into the
formation of voluntary groups.
191
It is our next task to follow out the results of the Puritan idea
of the calling in the business world, now that the above sketch
has attempted to show its religious foundations. With all the
differences of detail and emphasis which these different ascetic
movements show in the aspects with which we have been con-
cerned, much the same characteristics are present and important
in all of them.
192
But for our purposes the decisive point was, to
recapitulate, the conception of the state of religious grace,
common to all the denominations, as a status which marks off
its possessor from the degradation of the flesh, from the
world.
193
On the other hand, though the means by which it was
attained differed for different doctrines, it could not be guaran-
teed by any magical sacraments, by relief in the confession, nor
by individual good works. That was only possible by proof in a
specific type of conduct unmistakably different from the way of
life of the natural man. From that followed for the individual an
incentive methodically to supervise his own state of grace in his
own conduct, and thus to penetrate it with asceticism. But, as we
have seen, this ascetic conduct meant a rational planning of the
whole of one’s life in accordance with God’s will. And this
asceticism was no longer an opus supererogationis, but something
which could be required of everyone who would be certain of
salvation. The religious life of the saints, as distinguished from
the natural life, was—the most important point—no longer
lived outside the world in monastic communities, but within the
world and its institutions. This rationalization of conduct within
this world, but for the sake of the world beyond, was the con-
sequence of the concept of calling of ascetic Protestantism.
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
100
Christian asceticism, at first fleeing from the world into soli-
tude, had already ruled the world which it had renounced from
the monastery and through the Church. But it had, on the whole,
left the naturally spontaneous character of daily life in the world
untouched. Now it strode into the market-place of life, slammed
the door of the monastery behind it, and undertook to penetrate
just that daily routine of life with its methodicalness, to fashion
it into a life in the world, but neither of nor for this world. With
what result, we shall try to make clear in the following
discussion.
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
101
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