Part II
The Practical Ethics of the Ascetic
Branches of Protestantism
4
THE RELIGIOUS
FOUNDATIONS OF WORLDLY
ASCETICISM
In history there have been four principal forms of ascetic Protes-
tantism (in the sense of word here used): (1) Calvinism in the
form which it assumed in the main area of its influence in
Western Europe, especially in the seventeenth century; (2) Piet-
ism; (3) Methodism; (4) the sects growing out of the Baptist
movement.
1
None of these movements was completely separ-
ated from the others, and even the distinction from the non-
ascetic Churches of the Reformation is never perfectly clear.
Methodism, which first arose in the middle of the eighteenth
century within the Established Church of England, was not, in
the minds of its founders, intended to form a new Church, but
only a new awakening of the ascetic spirit within the old. Only
in the course of its development, especially in its extension to
America, did it become separate from the Anglican Church.
Pietism first split off from the Calvinistic movement in
England, and especially in Holland. It remained loosely con-
nected with orthodoxy, shading off from it by imperceptible
gradations, until at the end of the seventeenth century it was
absorbed into Lutheranism under Spener’s leadership. Though
the dogmatic adjustment was not entirely satisfactory, it
remained a movement within the Lutheran Church. Only the
faction dominated by Zinzendorf, and affected by lingering
Hussite and Calvinistic influences within the Moravian brother-
hood, was forced, like Methodism against its will, to form a
peculiar sort of sect. Calvinism and Baptism were at the begin-
ning of their development sharply opposed to each other. But in
the Baptism of the latter part of the seventeenth century they
were in close contact. And even in the Independent sects of
England and Holland at the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury the transition was not abrupt. As Pietism shows, the transi-
tion to Lutheranism is also gradual, and the same is true of
Calvinism and the Anglican Church, though both in external
character and in the spirit of its most logical adherents the latter
is more closely related to Catholicism. It is true that both the
mass of the adherents and especially the staunchest champions
of that ascetic movement which, in the broadest sense of a
highly ambiguous word, has been called Puritanism,
2
did attack
the foundations of Anglicanism; but even here the differences
were only gradually worked out in the course of the struggle.
Even if for the present we quite ignore the questions of govern-
ment and organization which do not interest us here, the facts
are just the same. The dogmatic differences, even the most
important, such as those over the doctrines of predestination
and justification, were combined in the most complex ways, and
even at the beginning of the seventeenth century regularly,
though not without exception, prevented the maintenance of
unity in the Church. Above all, the types of moral conduct in
which we are interested may be found in a similar manner
among the adherents of the most various denominations,
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54
derived from any one of the four sources mentioned above, or a
combination of several of them. We shall see that similar ethical
maxims may be correlated with very different dogmatic founda-
tions. Also the important literary tools for the saving of souls,
above all the casuistic compendia of the various denominations,
influenced each other in the course of time; one finds great
similarities in them, in spite of very great differences in actual
conduct.
It would almost seem as though we had best completely
ignore both the dogmatic foundations and the ethical theory and
confine our attention to the moral practice so far as it can be
determined. That, however, is not true. The various different
dogmatic roots of ascetic morality did no doubt die out after
terrible struggles. But the original connection with those
dogmas has left behind important traces in the later undogmatic
ethics; moreover, only the knowledge of the original body of
ideas can help us to understand the connection of that morality
with the idea of the afterlife which absolutely dominated the
most spiritual men of that time. Without its power, overshadow-
ing everything else, no moral awakening which seriously
influenced practical life came into being in that period.
We are naturally not concerned with the question of what was
theoretically and officially taught in the ethical compendia of the
time, however much practical significance this may have had
through the influence of Church discipline, pastoral work, and
preaching.
3
We are interested rather in something entirely differ-
ent: the influence of those psychological sanctions which, ori-
ginating in religious belief and the practice of religion, gave a
direction to practical conduct and held the individual to it.
Now these sanctions were to a large extent derived from the
peculiarities of the religious ideas behind them. The men of that
day were occupied with abstract dogmas to an extent which
itself can only be understood when we perceive the connec-
tion of these dogmas with practical religious interests. A few
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
55
observations on dogma,
4
which will seem to the non-
theological reader as dull as they will hasty and superficial to the
theologian, are indispensable. We can of course only proceed by
presenting these religious ideas in the artificial simplicity of
ideal types, as they could at best but seldom be found in history.
For just because of the impossibility of drawing sharp boundar-
ies in historical reality we can only hope to understand their
specific importance from an investigation of them in their most
consistent and logical forms.
A. CALVINISM
Now Calvinism
5
was the faith
6
over which the great political
and cultural struggles of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
were fought in the most highly developed countries, the Nether-
lands, England, and France. To it we shall hence turn first. At that
time, and in general even to-day, the doctrine of predestination
was considered its most characteristic dogma. It is true that there
has been controversy as to whether it is the most essential
dogma of the Reformed Church or only an appendage. Judg-
ments of the importance of a historical phenomenon may be
judgments of value or faith, namely, when they refer to what is
alone interesting, or alone in the long run valuable in it. Or, on
the other hand, they may refer to its influence on other historical
processes as a causal factor. Then we are concerned with judg-
ments of historical imputation. If now we start, as we must do
here, from the latter standpoint and inquire into the significance
which is to be attributed to that dogma by virtue of its cultural
and historical consequences, it must certainly be rated very
highly.
7
The movement which Oldenbarneveld led was shattered
by it. The schism in the English Church became irrevocable
under James I after the Crown and the Puritans came to differ
dogmatically over just this doctrine. Again and again it was
looked upon as the real element of political danger in Calvinism
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56
and attacked as such by those in authority.
8
The great synods
of the seventeenth century, above all those of Dordrecht and West-
minster, besides numerous smaller ones, made its elevation to
canonical authority the central purpose of their work. It served
as a rallying-point to countless heroes of the Church militant,
and in both the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries it
caused schisms in the Church and formed the battle-cry of
great new awakenings. We cannot pass it by, and since to-day
it can no longer be assumed as known to all educated men,
we can best learn its content from the authoritative words of
the Westminster Confession of 1647, which in this regard is
simply repeated by both Independent and Baptist creeds.
Chapter IX (of Free Will), No. 3. Man, by his fall into a state
of sin, hath wholly lost all ability of will to any spiritual good
accompanying salvation. So that a natural man, being
altogether averse from that Good, and dead in sin, is not able,
by his own strength, to convert himself, or to prepare himself
thereunto.
Chapter III (of God’s Eternal Decree), No. 3. By the decree of
God, for the manifestation of His glory, some men and angels
are predestinated unto everlasting life, and others foreordained
to everlasting death.
No. 5. Those of mankind that are predestinated unto life,
God before the foundation of the world was laid, according to
His eternal and immutable purpose, and the secret counsel
and good pleasure of His will, hath chosen in Christ unto ever-
lasting glory, out of His mere free grace and love, without any
foresight of faith or good works, or perseverance in either of
them, or any other thing in the creature as conditions or causes
moving Him thereunto, and all to the praise of His glorious
grace.
No. 7. The rest of mankind God was pleased, according
to the unsearchable counsel of His own will, whereby He
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
57
extendeth, or with-holdeth mercy, as He pleaseth, for the glory
of His sovereign power over His creatures, to pass by, and to
ordain them to dishonour and wrath for their sin, to the praise
of His glorious justice.
Chapter X (of Effectual Calling), No. 1. All those whom God
hath predestinated unto life, and those only, He is pleased in
His appointed and accepted time effectually to call by His word
and spirit (out of that state of sin and death, in which they are
by nature) . . . taking away their heart of stone, and giving unto
them an heart of flesh; renewing their wills, and by His almighty
power determining them to that which is good. . . .
Chapter V (of Providence), No. 6. As for those wicked and
ungodly men, whom God as a righteous judge, for former sins
doth blind and harden, from them He not only with-holdeth
His grace, whereby they might have been enlightened in their
understandings and wrought upon in their hearts, but some-
times also withdraweth the gifts which they had and exposeth
them to such objects as their corruption makes occasion of sin:
and withal, gives them over to their own lusts, the temptations
of the world, and the power of Satan: whereby it comes to pass
that they harden themselves, even under those means, which
God useth for the softening of others.
9
“Though I may be sent to Hell for it, such a God will never
command my respect”, was Milton’s well-known opinion of the
doctrine.
10
But we are here concerned not with the evaluation,
but the historical significance of the dogma. We can only briefly
sketch the question of how the doctrine originated and how it
fi
tted into the framework of Calvinistic theology.
Two paths leading to it were possible. The phenomenon of the
religious sense of grace is combined, in the most active and
passionate of those great worshippers which Christianity has
produced again and again since Augustine, with the feeling of
certainty that that grace is the sole product of an objective power,
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
58
and not in the least to be attributed to personal worth. The
powerful feeling of light-hearted assurance, in which the tre-
mendous pressure of their sense of sin is released, apparently
breaks over them with elemental force and destroys every possi-
bility of the belief that this overpowering gift of grace could owe
anything to their own co-operation or could be connected with
achievements or qualities of their own faith and will. At the time
of Luther’s greatest religious creativeness, when he was capable
of writing his Freiheit eines Christenmenschen, God’s secret decree was
also to him most definitely the sole and ultimate source of his
state of religious grace.
11
Even later he did not formally abandon
it. But not only did the idea not assume a central position for
him, but it receded more and more into the background, the
more his position as responsible head of his Church forced him
into practical politics. Melanchthon quite deliberately avoided
adopting the dark and dangerous teaching in the Augsburg Con-
fession, and for the Church fathers of Lutheranism it was an
article of faith that grace was revocable (amissibilis), and could be
won again by penitent humility and faithful trust in the word of
God and in the sacraments.
With Calvin the process was just the opposite; the significance
of the doctrine for him increased,
12
perceptibly in the course of
his polemical controversies with theological opponents. It is not
fully developed until the third edition of his Institutes, and only
gained its position of central prominence after his death in the
great struggles which the Synods of Dordrecht and Westminster
sought to put an end to. With Calvin the decretum horribile is
derived not, as with Luther, from religious experience, but from
the logical necessity of his thought; therefore its importance in-
creases with every increase in the logical consistency of that reli-
gious thought. The interest of it is solely in God, not in man; God
does not exist for men, but men for the sake of God.
13
All creation,
including of course the fact, as it undoubtedly was for Calvin,
that only a small proportion of men are chosen for eternal
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59
grace, can have any meaning only as means to the glory and
majesty of God. To apply earthly standards of justice to His sove-
reign decrees is meaningless and an insult to His Majesty,
14
since
He and He alone is free, i.e. is subject to no law. His decrees can
only be understood by or even known to us in so far as it has been
His pleasure to reveal them. We can only hold to these fragments
of eternal truth. Everything else, including the meaning of our
individual destiny, is hidden in dark mystery which it would be
both impossible to pierce and presumptuous to question.
For the damned to complain of their lot would be much the
same as for animals to bemoan the fact they were not born as
men. For everything of the flesh is separated from God by an
unbridgeable gulf and deserves of Him only eternal death, in so
far as He has not decreed otherwise for the glorification of His
Majesty. We know only that a part of humanity is saved, the rest
damned. To assume that human merit or guilt play a part in
determining this destiny would be to think of God’s absolutely
free decrees, which have been settled from eternity, as subject to
change by human influence, an impossible contradiction. The
Father in heaven of the New Testament, so human and under-
standing, who rejoices over the repentance of a sinner as a
woman over the lost piece of silver she has found, is gone. His
place has been taken by a transcendental being, beyond the reach
of human understanding, who with His quite incomprehensible
decrees has decided the fate of every individual and regulated the
tiniest details of the cosmos from eternity.
15
God’s grace is, since
His decrees cannot change, as impossible for those to whom He
has granted it to lose as it is unattainable for those to whom He
has denied it.
In its extreme inhumanity this doctrine must above all have
had one consequence for the life of a generation which sur-
rendered to its magnificent consistency. That was a feeling of
unprecedented inner loneliness of the single individual.
16
In
what was for the man of the age of the Reformation the most
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
60
important thing in life, his eternal salvation, he was forced to
follow his path alone to meet a destiny which had been decreed
for him from eternity. No one could help him. No priest, for the
chosen one can understand the word of God only in his own
heart. No sacraments, for though the sacraments had been
ordained by God for the increase of His glory, and must hence
be scrupulously observed, they are not a means to the attainment
of grace, but only the subjective externa subsidia of faith. No
Church, for though it was held that extra ecclesiam nulla salus in the
sense that whoever kept away from the true Church could never
belong to God’s chosen band,
17
nevertheless the membership of
the external Church included the doomed. They should belong
to it and be subjected to its discipline, not in order thus to attain
salvation, that is impossible, but because, for the glory of God,
they too must be forced to obey His commandments. Finally,
even no God. For even Christ had died only for the elect,
18
for
whose benefit God had decreed His martyrdom from eternity.
This, the complete elimination of salvation through the Church
and the sacraments (which was in Lutheranism by no
means developed to its final conclusions), was what formed the
absolutely decisive difference from Catholicism.
That great historic process in the development of religions,
the elimination of magic from the world
19
which had begun
with the old Hebrew prophets and, in conjunction with Hel-
lenistic scientific thought, had repudiated all magical means to
salvation as superstition and sin, came here to its logical conclu-
sion. The genuine Puritan even rejected all signs of religious cere-
mony at the grave and buried his nearest and dearest without
song or ritual in order that no superstition, no trust in the effects
of magical and sacramental forces on salvation, should creep in.
20
There was not only no magical means of attaining the grace of
God for those to whom God had decided to deny it, but no
means whatever. Combined with the harsh doctrines of the abso-
lute transcendentality of God and the corruption of everything
the religious foundations of worldly asceticism
61
pertaining to the flesh, this inner isolation of the indi-
vidual contains, on the one hand, the reason for the entirely
negative attitude of Puritanism to all the sensuous and emo-
tional elements in culture and in religion, because they are of no
use toward salvation and promote sentimental illusions and
idolatrous superstitions. Thus it provides a basis for a funda-
mental antagonism to sensuous culture of all kinds.
21
On the
other hand, it forms one of the roots of that disillusioned and
pessimistically inclined individualism
22
which can even to-day
be identified in the national characters and the institutions of
the peoples with a Puritan past, in such a striking contrast to the
quite different spectacles through which the Enlightenment
later looked upon men.
23
We can clearly identify the traces of
the influence of the doctrine of predestination in the elementary
forms of conduct and attitude toward life in the era with which
we are concerned, even where its authority as a dogma was on
the decline. It was in fact only the most extreme form of that
exclusive trust in God in which we are here interested. It comes
out for instance in the strikingly frequent repetition, especially
in the English Puritan literature, of warnings against any trust in
the aid of friendship of men.
24
Even the amiable Baxter coun-
sels deep distrust of even one’s closest friend, and Bailey directly
exhorts to trust no one and to say nothing compromising to
anyone. Only God should be your confidant.
25
In striking con-
trast to Lutheranism, this attitude toward life was also con-
nected with the quiet disappearance of the private confession,
of which Calvin was suspicious only on account of its possible
sacramental misinterpretation, from all the regions of fully
developed Calvinism. That was an occurrence of the greatest
importance. In the first place it is a symptom of the type of
influence this religion exercised. Further, however, it was a psy-
chological stimulus to the development of their ethical attitude.
The means to a periodical discharge of the emotional sense of
sin
26
was done away with.
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
62
Of the consequences for the ethical conduct of everyday life
we speak later. But for the general religious situation of a man
the consequences are evident. In spite of the necessity of mem-
bership in the true Church
27
for salvation, the Calvinist’s inter-
course with his God was carried on in deep spiritual isolation. To
see the specific results
28
of this peculiar atmosphere, it is only
necessary to read Bunyan’s Dostları ilə paylaş: |