T
RANSLATOR’S
P
REFACE
Max Weber’s essay, Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus,
which is here translated, was first published in the Archiv für
Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, Volumes XX and XXI, for 1904–5.
It was reprinted in 1920 as the first study in the ambitious series
Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Religionssoziologie, which was left unfinished
by Weber’s untimely death in that same year. For the new print-
ing he made considerable changes, and appended both new
material and replies to criticism in footnotes. The translation has,
however, been made directly from this last edition. Though the
volume of footnotes is excessively large, so as to form a serious
detriment to the reader’s enjoyment, it has not seemed advisable
either to omit any of them or to attempt to incorporate them
into the text. As it stands it shows most plainly how the problem
has grown in Weber’s own mind, and it would be a pity to
destroy that for the sake of artistic perfection. A careful perusal
of the notes is, however, especially recommended to the reader,
since a great deal of important material is contained in them.
The fact that they are printed separately from the main text
should not be allowed to hinder their use. The translation is, as
far as is possible, faithful to the text, rather than attempting to
achieve any more than ordinary, clear English style. Nothing has
been altered, and only a few comments to clarify obscure points
and to refer the reader to related parts of Weber’s work have
been added.
The Introduction, which is placed before the main essay, was
written by Weber in 1920 for the whole series on the Sociology
of Religion. It has been included in this translation because it
gives some of the general background of ideas and problems
into which Weber himself meant this particular study to fit. That
has seemed particularly desirable since, in the voluminous
discussion which has grown up in Germany around Weber’s
essay, a great deal of misplaced criticism has been due to the
failure properly to appreciate the scope and limitations of
the study. While it is impossible to appreciate that fully without
a thorough study of Weber’s sociological work as a whole,
this brief introduction should suffice to prevent a great deal of
misunderstanding.
The series of which this essay forms a part was, as has been
said, left unfinished at Weber’s death. The first volume only had
been prepared for the press by his own hand. Besides the parts
translated here, it contains a short, closely related study, Die protes-
tantischen Sekten und der Geist des Kapitalismus; a general introduction to
the further studies of particular religions which as a whole he
called Die Wirtschaftsethik der Weltreligionen; and a long study of Con-
fucianism and Taoism. The second and third volumes, which
were published after his death, without the thorough revision
which he had contemplated, contain studies of Hinduism and
Buddhism and Ancient Judaism. In addition he had done work
on other studies, notably of Islam, Early Christianity, and
Talmudic Judaism, which were not yet in a condition fit for
publication in any form. Nevertheless, enough of the whole ser-
ies has been preserved to show something of the extraordinary
breadth and depth of Weber’s grasp of cultural problems. What
is here presented to English-speaking readers is only a fragment,
translator’s preface
xxvi
but it is a fragment which is in many ways of central significance
for Weber’s philosophy of history, as well as being of very great
and very general interest for the thesis it advances to explain
some of the most important aspects of modern culture.
T P
Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
January 1930
translator’s preface
xxvii
A
UTHOR’S
I
NTRODUCTION
A product of modern European civilization, studying any prob-
lem of universal history, is bound to ask himself to what com-
bination of circumstances the fact should be attributed that in
Western civilization, and in Western civilization only, cultural
phenomena have appeared which (as we like to think) lie in a
line of development having universal significance and value.
Only in the West does science exist at a stage of development
which we recognize to-day as valid. Empirical knowledge, reflec-
tion on problems of the cosmos and of life, philosophical and
theological wisdom of the most profound sort, are not confined
to it, though in the case of the last the full development of a
systematic theology must be credited to Christianity under the
influence of Hellenism, since there were only fragments in Islam
and in a few Indian sects. In short, knowledge and observation of
great refinement have existed elsewhere, above all in India,
China, Babylonia, Egypt. But in Babylonia and elsewhere astron-
omy lacked—which makes its development all the more
astounding—the mathematical foundation which it first
received from the Greeks. The Indian geometry had no rational
proof; that was another product of the Greek intellect, also the
creator of mechanics and physics. The Indian natural sciences,
though well developed in observation, lacked the method of
experiment, which was, apart from beginnings in antiquity,
essentially a product of the Renaissance, as was the modern
laboratory. Hence medicine, especially in India, though highly
developed in empirical technique, lacked a biological and par-
ticularly a biochemical foundation. A rational chemistry has
been absent from all areas of culture except the West.
The highly developed historical scholarship of China did not
have the method of Thucydides. Machiavelli, it is true, had pre-
decessors in India; but all Indian political thought was lacking in
a systematic method comparable to that of Aristotle, and, indeed,
in the possession of rational concepts. Not all the anticipations in
India (School of Mimamsa), nor the extensive codification espe-
cially in the Near East, nor all the Indian and other books of law,
had the strictly systematic forms of thought, so essential to a
rational jurisprudence, of the Roman law and of the Western law
under its influence. A structure like the canon law is known only
to the West.
A similar statement is true of art. The musical ear of other
peoples has probably been even more sensitively developed than
our own, certainly not less so. Polyphonic music of various kinds
has been widely distributed over the earth. The co-operation of a
number of instruments and also the singing of parts have existed
elsewhere. All our rational tone intervals have been known and
calculated. But rational harmonious music, both counterpoint
and harmony, formation of the tone material on the basis of
three triads with the harmonic third; our chromatics and
enharmonics, not interpreted in terms of space, but, since the
Renaissance, of harmony; our orchestra, with its string quartet as
a nucleus, and the organization of ensembles of wind instru-
ments; our bass accompaniment; our system of notation, which
has made possible the composition and production of modern
musical works, and thus their very survival; our sonatas,
author’s introduction
xxix
symphonies, operas; and finally, as means to all these, our fun-
damental instruments, the organ, piano, violin, etc.; all these
things are known only in the Occident, although programme
music, tone poetry, alteration of tones and chromatics, have
existed in various musical traditions as means of expression.
In architecture, pointed arches have been used elsewhere as a
means of decoration, in antiquity and in Asia; presumably the
combination of pointed arch and cross-arched vault was not
unknown in the Orient. But the rational use of the Gothic vault
as a means of distributing pressure and of roofing spaces of all
forms, and above all as the constructive principle of great
monumental buildings and the foundation of a style extending to
sculpture and painting, such as that created by our Middle Ages,
does not occur elsewhere. The technical basis of our architecture
came from the Orient. But the Orient lacked that solution of the
problem of the dome and that type of classic rationalization of
all art—in painting by the rational utilization of lines and spatial
perspective—which the Renaissance created for us. There was
printing in China. But a printed literature, designed only for print
and only possible through it, and, above all, the Press and period-
icals, have appeared only in the Occident. Institutions of higher
education of all possible types, even some superficially similar to
our universities, or at least academies, have existed (China,
Islam). But a rational, systematic, and specialized pursuit of sci-
ence, with trained and specialized personnel, has only existed in
the West in a sense at all approaching its present dominant place
in our culture. Above all is this true of the trained official, the
pillar of both the modern State and of the economic life of the
West. He forms a type of which there have heretofore only been
suggestions, which have never remotely approached its present
importance for the social order. Of course the official, even the
specialized official, is a very old constituent of the most various
societies. But no country and no age has ever experienced, in the
same sense as the modern Occident, the absolute and complete
author’s introduction
xxx
dependence of its whole existence, of the political, technical,
and economic conditions of its life, on a specially trained organiza-
tion of officials. The most important functions of the everyday
life of society have come to be in the hands of technically,
commercially, and above all legally trained government officials.
Organization of political and social groups in feudal classes
has been common. But even the feudal
1
state of rex et regnum in the
Western sense has only been known to our culture. Even more
are parliaments of periodically elected representatives, with gov-
ernment by demagogues and party leaders as ministers respon-
sible to the parliaments, peculiar to us, although there have, of
course, been parties, in the sense of organizations for exerting
influence and gaining control of political power, all over the
world. In fact, the State itself, in the sense of a political associ-
ation with a rational, written constitution, rationally ordained
law, and an administration bound to rational rules or laws, admin-
istered by trained officials, is known, in this combination of
characteristics, only in the Occident, despite all other approaches
to it.
And the same is true of the most fateful force in our modern
life, capitalism. The impulse to acquisition, pursuit of gain, of
money, of the greatest possible amount of money, has in itself
nothing to do with capitalism. This impulse exists and has
existed among waiters, physicians, coachmen, artists, prosti-
tutes, dishonest officials, soldiers, nobles, crusaders, gamblers,
and beggars. One may say that it has been common to all sorts
and conditions of men at all times and in all countries of the
earth, wherever the objective possibility of it is or has been
given. It should be taught in the kindergarten of cultural history
that this naïve idea of capitalism must be given up once and for
all. Unlimited greed for gain is not in the least identical with
capitalism, and is still less its spirit. Capitalism may even be iden-
tical with the restraint, or at least a rational tempering, of this
irrational impulse. But capitalism is identical with the pursuit of
author’s introduction
xxxi
profit, and forever renewed profit, by means of continuous,
rational, capitalistic enterprise. For it must be so: in a wholly
capitalistic order of society, an individual capitalistic enterprise
which did not take advantage of its opportunities for profit-
making would be doomed to extinction.
Let us now define our terms somewhat more carefully than is
generally done. We will define a capitalistic economic action as
one which rests on the expectation of profit by the utilization of
opportunities for exchange, that is on (formally) peaceful
chances of profit. Acquisition by force (formally and actually)
follows its own particular laws, and it is not expedient, however
little one can forbid this, to place it in the same category with
action which is, in the last analysis, oriented to profits from
exchange.
2
Where capitalistic acquisition is rationally pursued,
the corresponding action is adjusted to calculations in terms of
capital. This means that the action is adapted to a systematic
utilization of goods or personal services as means of acquisition
in such a way that, at the close of a business period, the balance
of the enterprise in money assets (or, in the case of a continuous
enterprise, the periodically estimated money value of assets)
exceeds the capital, i.e. the estimated value of the material means
of production used for acquisition in exchange. It makes no
difference whether it involves a quantity of goods entrusted in
natura to a travelling merchant, the proceeds of which may con-
sist in other goods in natura acquired by trade, or whether it
involves a manufacturing enterprise, the assets of which consist
of buildings, machinery, cash, raw materials, partly and wholly
manufactured goods, which are balanced against liabilities. The
important fact is always that a calculation of capital in terms of
money is made, whether by modern book-keeping methods or
in any other way, however primitive and crude. Everything is
done in terms of balances: at the beginning of the enterprise an
initial balance, before every individual decision a calculation to
ascertain its probable profitableness, and at the end a final bal-
author’s introduction
xxxii
ance to ascertain how much profit has been made. For instance,
the initial balance of a commenda
3
transaction would determine an
agreed money value of the assets put into it (so far as they were
not in money form already), and a final balance would form the
estimate on which to base the distribution of profit and loss at
the end. So far as the transactions are rational, calculation under-
lies every single action of the partners. That a really accurate
calculation or estimate may not exist, that the procedure is pure
guess-work, or simply traditional and conventional, happens
even to-day in every form of capitalistic enterprise where the
circumstances do not demand strict accuracy. But these are
points affecting only the degree of rationality of capitalistic
acquisition.
For the purpose of this conception all that matters is that an
actual adaptation of economic action to a comparison of money
income with money expenses takes place, no matter how primi-
tive the form. Now in this sense capitalism and capitalistic enter-
prises, even with a considerable rationalization of capitalistic
calculation, have existed in all civilized countries of the earth, so
far as economic documents permit us to judge. In China, India,
Babylon, Egypt, Mediterranean antiquity, and the Middle Ages,
as well as in modern times. These were not merely isolated ven-
tures, but economic enterprises which were entirely dependent
on the continual renewal of capitalistic undertakings, and even
continuous operations. However, trade especially was for a long
time not continuous like our own, but consisted essentially in a
series of individual undertakings. Only gradually did the activ-
ities of even the large merchants acquire an inner cohesion (with
branch organizations, etc.). In any case, the capitalistic enterprise
and the capitalistic entrepreneur, not only as occasional but as
regular entrepreneurs, are very old and were very widespread.
Now, however, the Occident has developed capitalism both to
a quantitative extent, and (carrying this quantitative develop-
ment) in types, forms, and directions which have never existed
author’s introduction
xxxiii
elsewhere. All over the world there have been merchants, whole-
sale and retail, local and engaged in foreign trade. Loans of all
kinds have been made, and there have been banks with the most
various functions, at least comparable to ours of, say, the six-
teenth century. Sea loans,
4
commenda, and transactions and
associations similar to the Kommanditgesellschaft,
5
have all been
widespread, even as continuous businesses. Whenever money
fi
nances of public bodies have existed, money-lenders have
appeared, as in Babylon, Hellas, India, China, Rome. They have
fi
nanced wars and piracy, contracts and building operations of
all sorts. In overseas policy they have functioned as colonial
entrepreneurs, as planters with slaves, or directly or indirectly
forced labour, and have farmed domains, offices, and, above all,
taxes. They have financed party leaders in elections and condottieri
in civil wars. And, finally, they have been speculators in chances
for pecuniary gain of all kinds. This kind of entrepreneur, the
capitalistic adventurer, has existed everywhere. With the excep-
tion of trade and credit and banking transactions, their activities
were predominantly of an irrational and speculative character, or
directed to acquisition by force, above all the acquisition of
booty, whether directly in war or in the form of continuous
fi
scal booty by exploitation of subjects.
The capitalism of promoters, large-scale speculators, conces-
sion hunters, and much modern financial capitalism even in
peace time, but, above all, the capitalism especially concerned
with exploiting wars, bears this stamp even in modern Western
countries, and some, but only some, parts of large-scale inter-
national trade are closely related to it, to-day as always.
But in modern times the Occident has developed, in addition
to this, a very different form of capitalism which has appeared
nowhere else: the rational capitalistic organization of (formally)
free labour. Only suggestions of it are found elsewhere. Even the
organization of unfree labour reached a considerable degree of
rationality only on plantations and to a very limited extent in the
author’s introduction
xxxiv
Ergasteria of antiquity. In the manors, manorial workshops, and
domestic industries on estates with serf labour it was probably
somewhat less developed. Even real domestic industries with
free labour have definitely been proved to have existed in only a
few isolated cases outside the Occident. The frequent use of day
labourers led in a very few cases—especially State monopolies,
which are, however, very different from modern industrial
organization—to manufacturing organizations, but never to a
rational organization of apprenticeship in the handicrafts like
that of our Middle Ages.
Rational industrial organization, attuned to a regular market,
and neither to political nor irrationally speculative opportunities
for profit, is not, however, the only peculiarity of Western capit-
alism. The modern rational organization of the capitalistic
enterprise would not have been possible without two other
important factors in its development: the separation of business
from the household, which completely dominates modern eco-
nomic life, and closely connected with it, rational book-keeping.
A spatial separation of places of work from those of residence
exists elsewhere, as in the Oriental bazaar and in the ergasteria of
other cultures. The development of capitalistic associations with
their own accounts is also found in the Far East, the Near East,
and in antiquity. But compared to the modern independence of
business enterprises, those are only small beginnings. The reason
for this was particularly that the indispensable requisites for this
independence, our rational business book-keeping and our legal
separation of corporate from personal property, were entirely
lacking, or had only begun to develop.
6
The tendency every-
where else was for acquisitive enterprises to arise as parts of a
royal or manorial household (of the oikos), which is, as Rodbertus
has perceived, with all its superficial similarity, a fundamentally
different, even opposite, development.
However, all these peculiarities of Western capitalism have
derived their significance in the last analysis only from their
author’s introduction
xxxv
association with the capitalistic organization of labour. Even
what is generally called commercialization, the development of
negotiable securities and the rationalization of speculation, the
exchanges, etc., is connected with it. For without the rational
capitalistic organization of labour, all this, so far as it was pos-
sible at all, would have nothing like the same significance, above
all for the social structure and all the specific problems of the
modern Occident connected with it. Exact calculation—the basis
of everything else—is only possible on a basis of free labour.
7
And just as, or rather because, the world has known no
rational organization of labour outside the modern Occident, it
has known no rational socialism. Of course, there has been civic
economy, a civic food-supply policy, mercantilism and welfare
policies of princes, rationing, regulation of economic life, pro-
tectionism, and laissez-faire theories (as in China). The world has
also known socialistic and communistic experiments of various
sorts: family, religious, or military communism, State socialism
(in Egypt), monopolistic cartels, and consumers’ organizations.
But although there have everywhere been civic market privil-
eges, companies, guilds, and all sorts of legal differences
between town and country, the concept of the citizen has not
existed outside the Occident, and that of the bourgeoisie outside
the modern Occident. Similarly, the proletariat as a class could
not exist, because there was no rational organization of free
labour under regular discipline. Class struggles between creditor
and debtor classes; landowners and the landless, serfs, or tenants;
trading interests and consumers or landlords, have existed
everywhere in various combinations. But even the Western
mediæval struggles between putters-out and their workers exist
elsewhere only in beginnings. The modern conflict of the large-
scale industrial entrepreneur and free-wage labourers was
entirely lacking. And thus there could be no such problems as
those of socialism.
Hence in a universal history of culture the central problem for
author’s introduction
xxxvi
us is not, in the last analysis, even from a purely economic view-
point, the development of capitalistic activity as such, differing in
different cultures only in form: the adventurer type, or capitalism
in trade, war, politics, or administration as sources of gain. It is
rather the origin of this sober bourgeois capitalism with its
rational organization of free labour. Or in terms of cultural his-
tory, the problem is that of the origin of the Western bourgeois
class and of its peculiarities, a problem which is certainly closely
connected with that of the origin of the capitalistic organization of
labour, but is not quite the same thing. For the bourgeois as a class
existed prior to the development of the peculiar modern form of
capitalism, though, it is true, only in the Western hemisphere.
Now the peculiar modern Western form of capitalism has
been, at first sight, strongly influenced by the development of
technical possibilities. Its rationality is to-day essentially depend-
ent on the calculability of the most important technical factors.
But this means fundamentally that it is dependent on the peculi-
arities of modern science, especially the natural sciences based
on mathematics and exact and rational experiment. On the other
hand, the development of these sciences and of the technique
resting upon them now receives important stimulation from
these capitalistic interests in its practical economic application. It
is true that the origin of Western science cannot be attributed to
such interests. Calculation, even with decimals, and algebra have
been carried on in India, where the decimal system was
invented. But it was only made use of by developing capitalism
in the West, while in India it led to no modern arithmetic or
book-keeping. Neither was the origin of mathematics and mech-
anics determined by capitalistic interests. But the technical
utilization of scientific knowledge, so important for the living
conditions of the mass of people, was certainly encouraged by
economic considerations, which were extremely favourable to it
in the Occident. But this encouragement was derived from the
peculiarities of the social structure of the Occident. We must
author’s introduction
xxxvii
hence ask, from what parts of that structure was it derived, since
not all of them have been of equal importance?
Among those of undoubted importance are the rational struc-
tures of law and of administration. For modern rational capital-
ism has need, not only of the technical means of production, but
of a calculable legal system and of administration in terms of
formal rules. Without it adventurous and speculative trading
capitalism and all sorts of politically determined capitalisms are
possible, but no rational enterprise under individual initiative,
with fixed capital and certainty of calculations. Such a legal sys-
tem and such administration have been available for economic
activity in a comparative state of legal and formalistic perfection
only in the Occident. We must hence inquire where that law
came from. Among other circumstances, capitalistic interests
have in turn undoubtedly also helped, but by no means alone
nor even principally, to prepare the way for the predominance in
law and administration of a class of jurists specially trained in
rational law. But these interests did not themselves create that
law. Quite different forces were at work in this development. And
why did not the capitalistic interests do the same in China or
India? Why did not the scientific, the artistic, the political, or the
economic development there enter upon that path of rationaliza-
tion which is peculiar to the Occident?
For in all the above cases it is a question of the specific and
peculiar rationalism of Western culture. Now by this term very
different things may be understood, as the following discussion
will repeatedly show. There is, for example, rationalization of
mystical contemplation, that is of an attitude which, viewed
from other departments of life, is specifically irrational, just as
much as there are rationalizations of economic life, of technique,
of scientific research, of military training, of law and administra-
tion. Furthermore, each one of these fields may be rationalized
in terms of very different ultimate values and ends, and what is
rational from one point of view may well be irrational from
author’s introduction
xxxviii
another. Hence rationalizations of the most varied character have
existed in various departments of life and in all areas of culture.
To characterize their differences from the view-point of cultural
history it is necessary to know what departments are rational-
ized, and in what direction. It is hence our first concern to work
out and to explain genetically the special peculiarity of Occi-
dental rationalism, and within this field that of the modern
Occidental form. Every such attempt at explanation must, recog-
nizing the fundamental importance of the economic factor,
above all take account of the economic conditions. But at the
same time the opposite correlation must not be left out of con-
sideration. For though the development of economic rationalism
is partly dependent on rational technique and law, it is at the
same time determined by the ability and disposition of men to
adopt certain types of practical rational conduct. When these
types have been obstructed by spiritual obstacles, the develop-
ment of rational economic conduct has also met serious inner
resistance. The magical and religious forces, and the ethical ideas
of duty based upon them, have in the past always been among
the most important formative influences on conduct. In the
studies collected here we shall be concerned with these forces.
8
Two older essays have been placed at the beginning which
attempt, at one important point, to approach the side of the
problem which is generally most difficult to grasp: the influence
of certain religious ideas on the development of an economic
spirit, or the ethos of an economic system. In this case we are
dealing with the connection of the spirit of modern economic
life with the rational ethics of ascetic Protestantism. Thus we
treat here only one side of the causal chain. The later studies on
the Economic Ethics of the World Religions attempt, in the form
of a survey of the relations of the most important religions to
economic life and to the social stratification of their environ-
ment, to follow out both causal relationships, so far as it is
necessary in order to find points of comparison with the
author’s introduction
xxxix
Occidental development. For only in this way is it possible to
attempt a causal evaluation of those elements of the economic
ethics of the Western religions which differentiate them from
others, with a hope of attaining even a tolerable degree of
approximation. Hence these studies do not claim to be complete
analyses of cultures, however brief. On the contrary, in every
culture they quite deliberately emphasize the elements in which
it differs from Western civilization. They are, hence, definitely
oriented to the problems which seem important for the under-
standing of Western culture from this view-point. With our
object in view, any other procedure did not seem possible. But to
avoid misunderstanding we must here lay special emphasis on
the limitation of our purpose.
In another respect the uninitiated at least must be warned
against exaggerating the importance of these investigations. The
Sinologist, the Indologist, the Semitist, or the Egyptologist, will
of course find no facts unknown to him. We only hope that he
will find nothing definitely wrong in points that are essential.
How far it has been possible to come as near this ideal as a non-
specialist is able to do, the author cannot know. It is quite evident
that anyone who is forced to rely on translations, and further-
more on the use and evaluation of monumental, documentary,
or literary sources, has to rely himself on a specialist literature
which is often highly controversial, and the merits of which he
is unable to judge accurately. Such a writer must make modest
claims for the value of his work. All the more so since the num-
ber of available translations of real sources (that is, inscriptions
and documents) is, especially for China, still very small in com-
parison with what exists and is important. From all this follows
the definitely provisional character of these studies, and espe-
cially of the parts dealing with Asia.
9
Only the specialist is
entitled to a final judgment. And, naturally, it is only because
expert studies with this special purpose and from this particular
view-point have not hitherto been made, that the present ones
author’s introduction
xl
have been written at all. They are destined to be superseded in a
much more important sense than this can be said, as it can be, of
all scientific work. But however objectionable it may be, such
trespassing on other special fields cannot be avoided in compara-
tive work. But one must take the consequences by resigning one-
self to considerable doubts regarding the degree of one’s success.
Fashion and the zeal of the literati would have us think that the
specialist can to-day be spared, or degraded to a position sub-
ordinate to that of the seer. Almost all sciences owe something to
dilettantes, often very valuable view-points. But dilettantism as a
leading principle would be the end of science. He who yearns
for seeing should go to the cinema, though it will be offered to
him copiously to-day in literary form in the present field of
investigation also.
10
Nothing is farther from the intent of these
thoroughly serious studies than such an attitude. And, I might
add, whoever wants a sermon should go to a conventicle. The
question of the relative value of the cultures which are compared
here will not receive a single word. It is true that the path of
human destiny cannot but appal him who surveys a section of it.
But he will do well to keep his small personal commentarie to
himself, as one does at the sight of the sea or of majestic moun-
tains, unless he knows himself to be called and gifted to give
them expression in artistic or prophetic form. In most other
cases the voluminous talk about intuition does nothing but con-
ceal a lack of perspective toward the object, which merits the
same judgment as a similar lack of perspective toward men.
Some justification is needed for the fact that ethnographical
material has not been utilized to anything like the extent which
the value of its contributions naturally demands in any really
thorough investigation, especially of Asiatic religions. This
limitation has not only been imposed because human powers
of work are restricted. This omission has also seemed to be
permissible because we are here necessarily dealing with the
religious ethics of the classes which were the culture-bearers of
author’s introduction
xli
their respective countries. We are concerned with the influence
which their conduct has had. Now it is quite true that this can
only be completely known in all its details when the facts from
ethnography and folk-lore have been compared with it. Hence
we must expressly admit and emphasize that this is a gap to
which the ethnographer will legitimately object. I hope to con-
tribute something to the closing of this gap in a systematic study
of the Sociology of Religion.
11
But such an undertaking would
have transcended the limits of this investigation with its closely
circumscribed purpose. It has been necessary to be content with
bringing out the points of comparison with our Occidental
religions as well as possible.
Finally, we may make a reference to the anthropological side of
the problem. When we find again and again that, even in
departments of life apparently mutually independent, certain
types of rationalization have developed in the Occident, and only
there, it would be natural to suspect that the most important
reason lay in differences of heredity. The author admits that he is
inclined to think the importance of biological heredity very
great. But in spite of the notable achievements of anthropo-
logical research, I see up to the present no way of exactly or even
approximately measuring either the extent or, above all, the form
of its influence on the development investigated here. It must be
one of the tasks of sociological and historical investigation first
to analyse all the influences and causal relationships which can
satisfactorily be explained in terms of reactions to environmental
conditions. Only then, and when comparative racial neurology
and psychology shall have progressed beyond their present and
in many ways very promising beginnings, can we hope for even
the probability of a satisfactory answer to that problem.
12
In the
meantime that condition seems to me not to exist, and an appeal
to heredity would therefore involve a premature renunciation of
the possibility of knowledge attainable now, and would shift the
problem to factors (at present) still unknown.
author’s introduction
xlii
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