Praxis
Pietatis, p. 182) or Matthew Henry (The Worth of the Soul, Works
of the Puritan Divines, p. 319). “Those that are eager in pursuit
of worldly wealth despise their Soul, not only because the Soul
is neglected and the body preferred before it, but because it is
employed in these pursuits” (Psa. cxxvii. 2). On the same page,
however, is the remark to be cited below about the sinfulness of
all waste of time, especially in recreations. Similarly in almost
the whole religious literature of English-Dutch Puritanisn. See
for instance, Hoornbeek’s (op cit., L, X, ch. 18, 18) Phillipics
against avaritia. This writer is also affected by sentimental piet-
istic influences. See the praise of tranquillitas animi which is
much more pleasing to God than the sollicitudo of this world.
Also Bailey, referring to the well-known passage in Scripture, is
of the opinion that “A rich man is not easily saved” (op. cit., p.
182). The Methodist catechisms also warn against “gathering
treasure on this earth”. For Pietism this is quite obvious, as
also for the Quakers. Compare Barday (op. cit., p. 517), “. . . and
therefore beware of such temptations as to use their callings as
an engine to be richer”.
7 For not wealth alone, but also the impulsive pursuit of it (or
what passed as such) was condemned with similar severity. In
the Netherlands the South Holland Synod of 1574 declared, in
reply to a question, that money-lenders should not be admitted
to communion even though the business was permitted by law;
and the Deventer Provincial Synod of 1598 (Art. 24) extended
notes
229
this to the employees of money-lenders. The Synod of Gorichem
in 1606 prescribed severe and humiliating conditions under
which the wives of usurers might be admitted, and the question
was discussed as late as 1644 and 1657 whether Lombards
should be admitted to communion (this against Brentano, who
cites his own Catholic ancestors, although foreign traders and
bankers have existed in the whole European and Asiatic world
for thousands of years). Gisbert Voet ( Disp. Theol., IV, 1667, de
usuris, p. 665) still wanted to exclude the Trapezites (Lombards,
Piedmontese). The same was true of the Huguenot Synods.
This type of capitalistic classes were not the typical representa-
tives of the philosophy or the type of conduct with which we are
concerned. They were also not new as compared with antiquity
or the Middle Ages.
8 Developed in detail in the tenth chapter of the Saints’ Everlast-
ing Rest. He who should seek to rest in the shelter of posses-
sions which God gives, God strikes even in this life. A self-
satisfied enjoyment of wealth already gained is almost always a
symptom of moral degradation, If we had everything which we
could have in this world, would that be all we hoped for? Com-
plete satisfaction of desires is not attainable on earth because
God’s will has decreed it should not be so.
9 Christian Directory, I, pp. 375–6. “It is for action that God main-
taineth us and our activities; work is the moral as well as the
natural end of power. . . . It is action that God is most served
and honoured by. . . . The public welfare or the good of the
many is to be valued above our own.” Here is the connecting-
point for the transition from the will of God to the purely utili-
tarian view-point of the later liberal theory. On the religious
sources of Utilitarianism, see below in the text and above, chap.
4, note 145.
10 The commandment of silence has been, starting from the Bib-
lical threat of punishment for every useless word, especially
since the Cluny monks, a favourite ascetic means of education
in self-control. Baxter also speaks in detail of the sinfulness of
unnecessary words. Its place in his character has been pointed
out by Sanford, op. cit., pp. 90 ff.
notes
230
What contemporaries felt as the deep melancholy and
moroseness of the Puritans was the result of breaking down the
spontaneity of the status naturalis, and the condemnation of
thoughtless speech was in the service of this end. When Wash-
ington Irving (Bracebridge Hall, chap. xxx) seeks the reason for
it partly in the calculating spirit of capitalism and partly in
the effect of political freedom, which promotes a sense of
responsibility, it may be remarked that it does not apply to the
Latin peoples. For England the situation was probably that : (1)
Puritanism enabled its adherents to create free institutions and
still become a world power; and (2) it transformed that calculat-
ing spirit (what Sombart calls Rechenhaftigkeit), which is in
truth essential to capitalism, from a mere means to economy
into a principle of general conduct.
11 Op. cit., I, p. 111.
12 Op. cit., I, pp. 383 f.
13 Similarly on the preciousness of time, see Barclay, op. cit., p. 14.
14 Baxter, op. cit., I, p. 79. “Keep up a high esteem of time and be
every day more careful that you lose none of your time, than
you are that you lose none of your gold and silver. And if vain
recreation, dressings, feastings, idle talk, unprofitable com-
pany, or sleep be any of them temptations to rob you of any of
your time, accordingly heighten your watchfulness.” “Those
that are prodigal of their time despise their own souls”, says
Matthew Henry (Worth of the Soul, Works of the Puritan Divines,
p. 315). Here also Protestant asceticism follows a well-beaten
track. We are accustomed to think it characteristic of the mod-
ern man that he has no time, and for instance, like Goethe in
the Wanderjahren, to measure the degree of capitalistic devel-
opment by the fact that the clocks strike every quarter-hour. So
also Sombart in his Kapitalismus. We ought not, however, to
forget that the first people to live (in the Middle Ages) with
careful measurement of time were the monks, and that the
church bells were meant above all to meet their needs,
15 Compare Baxter’s discussion of the calling, op. cit., I, pp. 108 ff.
Especially the following passage : “Question : But may I not
cast off the world that I may only think of my salvation? Answer:
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231
You may cast off all such excess of worldly cares or business as
unnecessarily hinder you in spiritual things. But you may not
cast off all bodily employment and mental labour in which you
may serve the common good. Everyone as a member of Church
or Commonwealth must employ their parts to the utmost for
the good of the Church and the Commonwealth. To neglect this
and say: I will pray and meditate, is as if your servant should
refuse his greatest work and tie himself to some lesser, easier
part. And God hath commanded you some way or other to
labour for your daily bread and not to live as drones of the
sweat of others only.” God’s commandment to Adam, “In the
sweat of thy brow”, and Paul’s declaration, “He who will not
work shall not eat”, are also quoted. It has always been known
of the Quakers that even the most well-to-do of them have had
their sons learn a calling, for ethical and not, as Alberti recom-
mends, for utilitarian reasons.
16 Here are points where Pietism, on account of its emotional char-
acter, takes a different view. Spener, although he emphasizes in
characteristic Lutheran fashion that labour in a calling is worship
of God (Theologische Bedenken, III, p. 445), nevertheless holds
that the restlessness of business affairs distracts one from God,
a most characteristic difference from Puritanism.
17 I, op. cit., p. 242. “It’s they that are lazy in their callings that can
find no time for holy duties.” Hence the idea that the cities, the
seat of the middle class with its rational business activities, are
the seats of ascetic virtue. Thus Baxter says of his hand-loom
weavers in Kidderminster: “And their constant converse and
traffic with London doth much to promote civility and piety
among tradesmen . . .” in his autobiography (Works of the Pur-
itan Divines, p. 38). That the proximity of the capital should
promote virtue would astonish modern clergymen, at least in
Germany. But Pietism also inclined to similar views. Thus
Spener, speaking of a young colleague, writes: “At least it
appears that among the great multitudes in the cities, though
the majority is quite depraved, there are nevertheless a number
of good people who can accomplish much, while in villages
often hardly anything good can be found in a whole com-
notes
232
munity” (Theologische Bedenken, I, 66, p. 303). In other words,
the peasant is little suited to rational ascetic conduct. Its ethical
glorification is very modern. We cannot here enter into the sig-
nificance of this and similar statements for the question of the
relation of asceticism to social classes.
18 Take, for instance, the following passages (op. cit., pp. 336 f.):
“Be wholly taken up in diligent business of your lawful callings
when you are not exercised in the more immediate service of
God.” “Labour hard in your callings.” “See that you have a
calling which will find you employment for all the time which
God’s immediate service spareth.”
19 That the peculiar ethical valuation of labour and its dignity was
not originally a Christian idea nor even peculiar to Christianity
has recently again been strongly emphasized by Harnack (Mitt.
des Ev.-Soz Kongr., 14. Folge, 1905, Nos. 3, 4, p. 48).
20 Similarly in Pietism (Spener, op. cit., III, pp. 429–30). The char-
acteristic Pietist version is that loyalty to a calling which is
imposed upon us by the fall serves to annihilate one’s own
selfish will. Labour in the calling is, as a service of love to one’s
neighbour, a duty of gratitude for God’s grace (a Lutheran
idea), and hence it is not pleasing to God that it should be
performed reluctantly (op. cit., III, p. 272). The Christian should
thus “prove himself as industrious in his labour as a worldly
man” (III, p. 278). That is obviously less drastic than the
Puritan version.
21 The significance of this important difference, which has been
evident ever since the Benedictine rules, can only be shown by a
much wider investigation.
22 “A sober procreation of children” is its purpose according to
Baxter. Similarly Spener, at the same time with concessions to
the coarse Lutheran attitude, which makes the avoidance of
immorality, which is otherwise unavoidable, an accessory aim.
Concupiscence as an accompaniment of sexual intercourse is
sinful even in marriage. For instance, in Spener’s view it is a
result of the fall which transformed such a natural, divinely
ordained process into something inevitably accompanied by
sinful sensations, which is hence shameful. Also in the opinion
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233
of various Pietistic groups the highest form of Christian mar-
riage is that with the preservation of virginity, the next highest
that in which sexual intercourse is only indulged in for the
procreation of children, and so on down to those which are
contracted for purely erotic or external reasons and which are,
from an ethical standpoint, concubinage. On these lower levels
a marriage entered into for purely economic reasons is pre-
ferred (because after all it is inspired by rational motives) to
one with erotic foundations. We may here neglect the Herrnhut
theory and practice of marriage. Rationalistic philosophy
(Christian Wolff) adopted the ascetic theory in the form that
what was designed as a means to an end, concupiscence and
its satisfaction, should not be made an end in itself.
The transition to a pure, hygienically oriented utilitarianism
had already taken place in Franklin, who took approximately the
ethical standpoint of modern physicians, who understand by
chastity the restriction of sexual intercourse to the amount
desirable for health, and who have, as is well known, even given
theoretical advice as to how that should be accomplished.
As soon as these matters have become the object of purely
rational consideration the same development has everywhere
taken place. The Puritan and the hygienic sex-rationalist gener-
ally tread very different paths, but here they understand each
other perfectly. In a lecture, a zealous adherent of hygienic
prostitution—it was a question of the regulation of brothels
and prostitutes—defended the moral legitimacy of extra-
marital intercourse (which was looked upon as hygienically
useful) by referring to its poetic justification in the case of Faust
and Margaret. To treat Margaret as a prostitute and to fail to
distinguish the powerful sway of human passions from sexual
intercourse for hygienic reasons, both are thoroughly congenial
to the Puritan standpoint. Similar, for instance, is the typical
specialist’s view, occasionally put forward by very distinguished
physicians, that a question which extends so far into the sub-
tlest problems of personality and of culture as that of sexual
abstinence should be dealt with exclusively in the forum of the
physician (as an expert). For the Puritan the expert was the
notes
234
moral theorist, now he is the medical man; but the claim of
competence to dispose of the questions which seem to us
somewhat narrow-minded is, with opposite signs of course, the
same in both cases.
But with all its prudery, the powerful idealism of the Puritan
attitude can show positive accomplishments, even from the
point of view of race conservation in a purely hygienic sense,
while modern sex hygiene, on account of the appeal to unpreju-
dicedness which it is forced to make, is in danger of destroying
the basis of all its success. How, with the rationalistic interpret-
ation of sexual relations among peoples influenced by Puritan-
ism, a certain refinement and spiritual and ethical penetration of
marital relationships, with a blossoming of matrimonial chiv-
alry, has grown up, in contrast to the patriarchal sentimentality
( Brodem), which is typical of Germany even in the circles of the
intellectual aristocracy, must necessarily remain outside this
discussion. Baptist influences have played a part in the emanci-
pation of woman; the protection of her freedom of conscience,
and the extension of the idea of the universal priesthood to her
were here also the first breaches in patriarchal ideas.
23 This recurs again and again in Baxter. The Biblical basis is regu-
larly either the passages in Proverbs, which we already know
from Franklin (xxii. 29), or those in praise of labour (xxxi. 16).
Cf. op. cit., I, pp. 377, 382, etc.
24 Even Zinzendorf says at one point : “One does not only work in
order to live, but one lives for the sake of one’s work, and if
there is no more work to do one suffers or goes to sleep” (Plitt,
op. cit., I, p. 428).
25 Also a symbol of the Mormons closes (after quotations) with
the words : “But a lazy or indolent man cannot be a Christian
and be saved. He is destined to be struck down and cast from
the hive.” But in this case it was primarily the grandiose discip-
line, half-way between monastery and factory, which placed the
individual before the dilemma of labour or annihilation and, of
course in connection with religious enthusiasm and only pos-
sible through it, brought forth the astonishing economic
achievements of this sect.
notes
235
26 Hence (op. cit., I, p. 380) its symptoms are carefully analysed.
Sloth and idleness are such deadly sins because they have a
cumulative character. They are even regarded by Baxter as “des-
troyers of grace” (op. cit., I, pp. 279–80). That is, they are the
antitheses of the methodical life.
27 See above, chap. 3, note 5.
28 Baxter, op. cit., I, pp. 108 ff. Especially striking are the following
passages : “Question: But will not wealth excuse us? Answer: It
may excuse you from some sordid sort of work by making you
more serviceable to another, but you are no more excused from
service of work . . . than the poorest man.” Also, p. 376:
“Though they [the rich] have no outward want to urge them,
they have as great a necessity to obey God . . . God hath strictly
commanded it [labour] to all.” Chap. 4, note 47.
29 Similarly Spener (op. cit., III, pp. 338, 425), who for this reason
opposes the tendency to early retirement as morally objection-
able, and, in refuting an objection to the taking of interest, that
the enjoyment of interest leads to laziness, emphasizes that
anyone who was in a position to live upon interest would still
be obligated to work by God’s commandment.
30 Including Pietism. Whenever a question of change of calling
arises, Spener takes the attitude that after a certain calling has
once been entered upon, it is a duty of obedience to Providence
to remain and acquiesce in it.
31 The tremendous force, dominating the whole of conduct,
with which the Indian religious teaching sanctions economic
traditionalism in terms of chances of favourable rebirth, I
have shown in the essays on the Wirtschaftsethik der Weltreli-
gionen. It is an excellent example by which to show the
difference between mere ethical theories and the creation of
psychological sanctions with a religious background for certain
types of conduct. The pious Hindu could advance in the
scale of transmigration only by the strictly traditional fulfil-
ment of the duties of the caste of his birth. It was the
strongest conceivable religious basis for traditionalism. In
fact, the Indian ethic is in this respect the most completely
consistent antithesis of the Puritan, as in another respect
notes
236
(traditionalism of the caste structure) it is opposed to the
Hebrew.
32 Baxter, op. cit., I, p. 377.
33 But this does not mean that the Puritan view-point was histor-
ically derived from the latter. On the contrary, it is an expression
of the genuinely Calvinistic idea that the cosmos of the world
serves the glory of God. The utilitarian turn, that the economic
cosmos should serve the good of the many, the common good,
etc., was a consequence of the idea that any other interpret-
ation of it would lead to aristocratic idolatry of the flesh, or at
least did not serve the glory of God, but only fleshly cultural
ends. But God’s will, as it is expressed (chap. 4, note 34) in the
purposeful arrangements of the economic cosmos, can, so far
as secular ends are in question at all, only be embodied in the
good of the community, in impersonal usefulness. Utilitarian-
ism is thus, as has already been pointed out, the result of the
impersonal character of brotherly love and the repudiation of
all glorification of this world by the exclusiveness of the Puritan
in majorem Dei gloriam.
How completely this idea, that all idolatry of the flesh is
inconsistent with the glory of God and hence unconditionally
bad, dominated ascetic Protestantism is clearly shown by the
doubts and hesitation which it cost even Spener, who certainly
was not infected with democracy, to maintain the use of titles as
’
against numerous objections. He finally comforted
himself with the reflection that even in the Bible the Prætor
Festus was given the title of
by the Apostles. The
political side of the question does not arise in this connection.
34 “The inconstant man is a stranger in his own house”, says
Thomas Adams ( Works of the Puritan Divines, p. 77).
35 On this, see especially George Fox’s remarks in the Friends’
Library (ed. W. & T. Evans, Philadelphia, 1837), I, p. 130.
36 Above all, this sort of religious ethic cannot be regarded as a
reflex of economic conditions. The specialization of occupa-
tions had, if anything, gone further in mediæval Italy than in
the England of that period.
37 For, as is often pointed out in the Puritan literature, God never
notes
237
commanded “love thy neighbour more than thyself ”, but only
as thyself. Hence self-regard is also a duty. For instance, a man
who can make better use of his possessions, to the greater
glory of God, than his neighbour, is not obliged by the duty of
brotherly love to part with them.
38 Spener is also close to this view-point. But even in the case of
transfer from commercial occupations (regarded as especially
dangerous to virtue) to theology, he remains hesitant and on
the whole opposed to it (op. cit., III, pp. 435, 443; I, p. 524). The
frequent occurrence of the reply to just this question (of the
permissibility of changing a calling) in Spener’s naturally
biassed opinion shows, incidentally, how eminently practical
the different ways of interpreting 1 Corinthians vii were.
39 Such ideas are not to be found, at least in the writings, of
the leading Continental Pietists. Spener’s attitude vacillates
between the Lutheran (that of satisfaction of needs) and Mer-
cantilist arguments for the usefulness of the prosperity of
commerce, etc. (op. cit., III, pp. 330, 332; I, p. 418: “the cultiva-
tion of tobacco brings money into the country and is thus use-
ful, hence not sinful”. Compare also III, pp. 426–7, 429, 434).
But he does not neglect to point out that, as the example of
the Quakers and the Mennonites shows, one can make profit
and yet remain pious; in fact, that even especially high profits,
as we shall point out later, may be the direct result of pious
uprightness (op. cit., p. 435).
40 These views of Baxter are not a reflection of the economic
environment in which he lived. On the contrary, his auto-
biography shows that the success of his home missionary work
was partly due to the fact that the Kidderminster tradesmen
were not rich, but only earned food and raiment, and that the
master craftsmen had to live from hand to mouth just as their
employees did. “It is the pool who receive the glad tidings of
the Gospel.” Thomas Adams remarks on the pursuit of gain :
“He [the knowing man] knows . . . that money may make a man
richer, not better, and thereupon chooseth rather to sleep with a
good conscience than a full purse . . . therefore desires no more
wealth than an honest man may bear away” (Works of the Pur-
notes
238
itan Divines, LI). But he does want that much, and that means
that every formally honest gain is legitimate.
41 Thus Baxter, op. cit., I, chap. x, 1, 9 (par. 24); I, p. 378, 2. In Prov.
xxiii. 4: “Weary thyself not to be rich” means only “riches for our
fleshly ends must not ultimately be intended”. Possession in
the feudal-seigneurial form of its use is what is odious (cf. the
remark, op. cit., I, p. 380, on the “debauched part of the gen-
try”), not possession in itself. Milton, in the first Defensio pro
populo Anglicano, held the well-known theory that only the mid-
dle class can maintain virtue. That middle class here means
bourgeoisie as against the aristocracy is shown by the state-
ment that both luxury and necessity are unfavourable to virtue.
42 This is most important. We may again add the general remark:
we are here naturally not so much concerned with what con-
cepts the theological moralists developed in their ethical theor-
ies, but, rather, what was the effective morality in the life of
believers—that is, how the religious background of economic
ethics affected practice. In the casuistic literature of Catholi-
cism, especially the Jesuit, one can occasionally read discus-
sions which—for instance on the question of the justification of
interest, into which we do not enter here—sound like those of
many Protestant casuists, or even seem to go farther in permit-
ting or tolerating things. The Puritans have since often enough
been reproached that their ethic is at bottom the same as that
of the Jesuits. Just as the Calvinists often cite Catholic moral-
ists, not only Thomas Aquinas, Bernhard of Clairvaux, Bon-
aventura, etc., but also contemporaries, the Catholic casuists
also took notice of heretical ethics. We cannot discuss all that
here.
But quite apart from the decisive fact of the religious sanc-
tion of the ascetic life for the layman, there is the fundamental
difference, even in theory, that these latitudinarian ideas within
Catholicism were the products of peculiarly lax ethical theories,
not sanctioned by the authority of the Church, but opposed by
the most serious and strictest disciples of it. On the other
hand, the Protestant idea of the calling in effect placed
the most serious enthusiasts for asceticism in the service of
notes
239
capitalistic acquisition. What in the one case might under cer-
tain conditions be allowed, appeared in the other as a positive
moral good. The fundamental differences of the two ethics,
very important in practice, have been finally crystallized, even
for modern times, by the Jansenist controversy and the Bull
Unigenitus.
43 “You may labour in that manner as tendeth most to your suc-
cess and lawful gain. You are bound to improve all your tal-
ents.” There follows the passage cited above in the text. A
direct parallel between the pursuit of wealth in the Kingdom
of Heaven and the pursuit of success in an earthly calling is
found in Janeway, Heaven upon Earth (Works of the Puritan
Divines, p. 275).
44 Even in the Lutheran Confession of Duke Christopher of Würt-
temberg, which was submitted to the Council of Trent, objec-
tion is made to the oath of poverty. He who is poor in his
station should bear it, but if he swore to remain so it would be
the same as if he swore to remain sick or to maintain a bad
reputation.
45 Thus in Baxter and also in Duke Christopher’s confession.
Compare further passages like: “ . . . the vagrant rogues whose
lives are nothing but an exorbitant course; the main begging”,
etc. (Thomas Adams, Works of the Puritan Divines, p. 259). Even
Calvin had strictly forbidden begging, and the Dutch Synods
campaigned against licences to beg. During the epoch of the
Stuarts, especially Laud’s regime under Charles I, which had
systematically developed the principle of public poor relief and
provision of work for the unemployed, the Puritan battle-cry
was: “Giving alms is no charity” (title of Defoe’s later well-
known work). Towards the end of the seventeenth century they
began the deterrent system of workhouses for the unemployed
(compare Leonard, Early History of English Poor Relief, Cam-
bridge, 1900, and H. Levy, Die Grundlagen des ökonomischen
Liberalismus in der Geschichte der englischen Volkswirtschaft,
Jena, 1912, pp. 69 ff.).
46 The President of the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland,
G. White, said emphatically in his inaugural address before the
notes
240
assembly in London in 1903 (Baptist Handbook, 1904, p. 104):
“The best men on the roll of our Puritan Churches were men of
affairs, who believed that religion should permeate the whole of
life.”
47 Here also lies the characteristic difference from all feudal
view-points. For the latter only the descendants of the parvenu
(political or social) can reap the benefit of his success in a
recognized station (characteristically expressed in the Spanish
Hidalgo
= hijo d’algo = filius de aliquo where the aliquid means
an inherited property). However rapidly these differences are
to-day fading out in the rapid change and Europeanization of
the American national character, nevertheless the precisely
opposite bourgeois attitude which glorifies business success
and earnings as a symptom of mental achievement, but has no
respect for mere inherited wealth, is still sometimes repre-
sented there. On the other hand, in Europe (as James Bryce
once remarked) in effect almost every social honour is now
purchasable for money, so long as the buyer has not himself
stood behind the counter, and carries out the necessary meta-
morphosis of his property (formation of trusts, etc.). Against
the aristocracy of blood, see for instance Thomas Adams,
Works of the Puritan Divines, p. 216.
48 That was, for instance, already true of the founder of the Famil-
ist sect, Hendrik Nicklaes, who was a merchant (Barclay, Inner
Life of the Religious Societies of the Commonwealth, p. 34).
49 This is, for instance, definitely true for Hoornbeek, since Matt.
v. 5 and 1 Tim. iv. 8 also made purely worldly promises to the
saints (op. cit., I, p. 193). Everything is the work of God’s Provi-
dence, but in particular He takes care of His own. Op. cit., p.
192: “Super alios autem summa cura et modis singularissimis
versatur Dei providentia circa fideles.” There follows a discus-
sion of how one can know that a stroke of luck comes not from
the communis providentia, but from that special care. Bailey also
(op. cit., p. 191) explains success in worldly labours by reference
to Providence. That prosperity is often the reward of a godly life
is a common expression in Quaker writings (for example see
such an expression as late as 1848 in Selection from the Christian
notes
241
Advices, issued by the General Meeting of the Society of
Friends, London, sixth edition, 1851, p. 209). We shall return to
the connection with the Quaker ethics.
50 Thomas Adams’s analysis of the quarrel of Jacob and Esau may
serve as an example of this attention to the patriarchs, which is
equally characteristic of the Puritan view of life (Works of the
Puritan Divines, p. 235): “His [Esau’s] folly may be argued from
the base estimation of the birthright” [the passage is also
important for the development of the idea of the birthright, of
which more later] “that he would so lightly pass from it and on
so easy condition as a pottage.” But then it was perfidious that
he would not recognize the sale, charging he had been cheated.
He is, in other words, “a cunning hunter, a man of the fields”; a
man of irrational, barbarous life; while Jacob, “a plain man,
dwelling in tents”, represents the “man of grace”.
The sense of an inner relationship to Judaism, which is
expressed even in the well-known work of Roosevelt, Köhler
(op. cit.) found widespread among the peasants in Holland.
But, on the other hand, Puritanism was fully conscious of
its differences from Hebrew ethics in practical affairs, as
Prynne’s attack on the Jews (apropos of Cromwell’s proposals
for toleration) plainly shows. See below, note 58.
51 Zur bäuerlichen Glaubens- und Sittenlehre. Von einem thüring-
ischen Landpfarrer, second edition, Gotha, 1890, p. 16. The
peasants who are here described are characteristic products of
the Lutheran Church. Again and again I wrote Lutheran in the
margin when the excellent author spoke of peasant religion in
general.
52 Compare for instance the passage cited in Ritschl, Pietismus II,
p. 158. Spener also bases his objections to change of calling and
pursuit of gain partly on passages in Jesus Sirach. Theologische
Bedenken, III, p. 426.
53 It is true that Bailey, nevertheless, recommends reading them,
and references to the Apocrypha occur now and then, though
naturally not often. I can remember none to Jesus Sirach just
now (though perhaps by chance).
54 Where outward success comes to persons evidently damned,
notes
242
the Calvinist (as for instance Hoornbeek) comforts himself with
the reflection, following the theory of stubbornness, that God
allows it to them in order to harden them and make their doom
the more certain.
55 We cannot go farther into this point in this connection. We are
here interested only in the formalistic character of Puritan
righteousness. On the significance of Old Testament ethics for
the lex naturæ there is much in Troeltsch’s Soziallehren.
56 The binding character of the ethical norms of the Scriptures
goes for Baxter (Christian Directory, III, p. 173 f.) so far that they
are (1) only a transcript of the law of nature, or (2) hear the
“express character of universality and perpetuity”.
57 For instance Dowden (with reference to Bunyan), op. cit., p, 39.
58 More on this point in the essays on the Wirtschaftsethik der
Weltreligionen. The enormous influence which, for instance, the
second commandment (“thou shalt not make unto thee a
graven image”) has had on the development of the Jewish
character, its rationality and abhorrence of sensuous culture,
cannot be analysed here. However, it may perhaps be noted as
characteristic that one of the leaders of the Educational Alliance
in the United States, an organization which carries on the
Americanization of Jewish immigrants on a grand scale and
with astonishing success, told me that one of the first purposes
aimed at in all forms of artistic and social educational work was
emancipation from the second commandment. To the Israel-
ite’s prohibition of any anthropomorphic representation of God
corresponds in Puritanism the somewhat different but in effect
similar prohibition of idolatry of the flesh.
As far as Talmudic Judaism is concerned, some fundamental
traits of Puritan morality are certainly related to it. For instance,
it is stated in the Talmud (in Wünsche, Babyl. Talmud, II, p. 34)
that it is better and will be more richly rewarded by God if one
does a good deed for duty’s sake than one which is not com-
manded by the law. In other words, loveless fulfillment of duty
stands higher ethically than sentimental philanthropy. The Pur-
itan ethics would accept that in essentials. Kant in effect also
comes close to it, being partly of Scotch ancestry and strongly
notes
243
influenced by Pietism in his bringing up. Though we cannot
discuss the subject here, many of his formulations are closely
related to ideas of ascetic Protestantism. But nevertheless the
Talmudic ethic is deeply saturated with Oriental traditionalism.
“R. Tanchum said to Ben Chanilai, ‘Never alter a custom’”
(Gemara to Mischna. VII, i, 86b, No. 93, in Wünsche. It is a
question of the standard of living of day labourers). The only
exception to the conformity is relation to strangers.
Moreover, the Puritan conception of lawfulness as proof evi-
dently provided a much stronger motive to positive action than
the Jewish unquestioned fulfillment of all commandments. The
idea that success reveals the blessing of God is of course not
unknown to Judaism. But the fundamental difference in
religious and ethical significance which it took on for Judaism
on account of the double ethic prevented the appearance of
similar results at just the most important point. Acts toward a
stranger were allowed which were forbidden toward a brother.
For that reason alone it was impossible for success in this field
of what was not commanded but only allowed to be a sign of
religious worth and a motive to methodical conduct in the way
in which it was for the Puritan. On this whole problem, which
Sombart, in his book Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben, has
often dealt with incorrectly, see the essays referred to above.
The details have no place here.
The Jewish ethics, however strange that may at first sound,
remained very strongly traditionalistic. We can likewise not
enter into the tremendous change which the inner attitude
toward the world underwent with the Christian form of the
ideas of grace and salvation which contained in a peculiar way
the seeds of new possibilities of development. On Old Testa-
ment lawfulness compare for example Ritschl, Die christliche
Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versöhnung, II, p. 265.
To the English Puritans, the Jews of their time were representa-
tives of that type of capitalism which was involved in war, Gov-
ernment contracts, State monopolies, speculative promotions,
and the construction and financial projects of princes, which
they themselves condemned. In fact the difference may, in
notes
244
general, with the necessary qualifications, be formulated: that
Jewish capitalism was speculative pariah-capitalism, while the
Puritan was bourgeois organization of labour.
59 The truth of the Holy Scriptures follows for Baxter in the last
analysis from the “wonderful difference of the godly and
ungodly”, the absolute difference of the renewed man from
others, and God’s evident quite special care for His chosen
people (which may of course be expressed in temptations),
Christian Directory, I, p. 165.
60 As a characterization of this, it is only necessary to read how
tortuously even Bunyan, who still occasionally approaches the
atmosphere of Luther’s Freiheit eines Christenmenschen (for
example in Of the Law and a Christian, Works of the Puritan
Divines, p. 254), reconciles himself with the parable of the Phar-
isee and the Publican (see the sermon The Pharisee and the
Publican, op. cit., p. 100) Why is the Pharisee condemned? He
does not truly keep God’s commandments, for he is evidently a
sectarian who is only concerned with external details and cere-
monies (p. 107), but above all because he ascribes merit to
himself, and at the same time, like the Quakers, thanks God for
virtue by misuse of His name. In a sinful manner he exalts this
virtue (p. 126), and thus implicitly contests God’s predestin-
ation (p. 139). His prayer is thus idolatry of the flesh, and that is
the reason it is sinful. On the other hand, the publican is, as the
honesty of his confession shows, spiritually reborn, for, as it is
put with a characteristic Puritan mitigation of the Lutheran
sense of sin, “to a right and sincere conviction of sin there
must be a conviction of the probability of mercy” (p. 209).
61 Printed in Gardiner’s Constitutional Documents. One may
compare this struggle against anti-authoritarian asceticism
with Louis XIV’s persecution of Port Royal and the Jansenists.
62 Calvin’s own standpoint was in this respect distinctly less dras-
tic, at least in so far as the finer aristocratic forms of the enjoy-
ment of life were concerned. The only limitation is the Bible.
Whoever adheres to it and has a good conscience, need not
observe his every impulse to enjoy life with anxiety. The discus-
sion in Chapter X of the Instit. Christ (for instance, “nec fugere
notes
245
ea quoque possumus quæ videntur oblectatione magis quam
necessitate inservire”) might in itself have opened the way to a
very lax practice. Along with increasing anxiety over the certi-
tudo salutis the most important circumstance for the later dis-
ciples was, however, as we shall point out in another place, that
in the era of the ecclesia militans it was the small bourgeoisie
who were the principal representatives of Calvinistic ethics.
63 Thomas Adams (Works of the Puritan Divines, p. 3) begins a
sermon on the “three divine sisters” (“but love is the greatest
of these”) with the remark that even Paris gave the golden
apple to Aphrodite!
64 Novels and the like should not be read; they are “wastetimes”
(Baxter, Christian Directory, I, p. 51). The decline of lyric poetry
and folk-music, as well as the drama, after the Elizabethan age
in England is well known. In the pictorial arts Puritanism per-
haps did not find very much to suppress. But very striking is the
decline from what seemed to be a promising musical begin-
ning (England’s part in the history of music was by no means
unimportant) to that absolute musical vacuum which we find
typical of the Anglo-Saxon peoples later, and even to-day.
Except for the negro churches, and the professional singers
whom the Churches now engage as attractions (Trinity Church
in Boston in 1904 for $8,000 annually), in America one also
hears as community singing in general only a noise which is
intolerable to German ears (partly analogous things in Holland
also).
65 Just the same in Holland, as the reports of the Synods show.
(See the resolutions on the Maypole in the Reitmaas Collection,
VI, 78, 139.)
66 That the “Renaissance of the Old Testament” and the Pietistic
orientation to certain Christian attitudes hostile to beauty in
art, which in the last analysis go back to Isaiah and the 22nd
Psalm, must have contributed to making ugliness more of a
possible object for art, and that the Puritan repudiation of
idolatry of the flesh played a part, seems likely. But in detail
everything seems uncertain. In the Roman Church quite differ-
ent demagogic motives led to outwardly similar effects, but,
notes
246
however, with quite different artistic results. Standing before
Rembrandt’s Saul and David (in the Mauritshuis), one seems
directly to feel the powerful influence of Puritan emotions. The
excellent analysis of Dutch cultural influences in Carl Neu-
mann’s Rembrandt probably gives everything that for the time
being we can know about how far ascetic Protestantism may be
credited with a positive fructifying influence on art.
67 The most complex causes, into which we cannot go here, were
responsible for the relatively smaller extent to which the Calvin-
istic ethic penetrated practical life there. The ascetic spirit
began to weaken in Holland as early as the beginning of the
seventeenth century (the English Congregationalists who fled
to Holland in 1608 were disturbed by the lack of respect for the
Sabbath there), but especially under the Stadtholder Frederick
Henry. Moreover, Dutch Puritanism had in general much less
expansive power than English. The reasons for it lay in part in
the political constitution (particularistic confederation of towns
and provinces) and in the far smaller degree of military force
(the War of Independence was soon fought principally with
the money of Amsterdam and mercenary armies. English
preachers illustrated the Babylonian confusion of tongues by
reference to the Dutch Army). Thus the burden of the war of
religion was to a large extent passed on to others, but at the
same time a part of their political power was lost. On the other
hand, Cromwell’s army, even though it was partly conscripted,
felt that it was an army of citizens. It was, to be sure, all the
more characteristic that just this army adopted the abolition of
conscription in its programme, because one could fight justly
only for the glory of God in a cause hallowed by conscience, but
not at the whim of a sovereign. The constitution of the British
Army, so immoral to traditional German ideas, had its histor-
ical origin in very moral motives, and was an attainment of
soldiers who had never been beaten. Only after the Restoration
was it placed in the service of the interests of the Crown.
The Dutch schutterijen, the champions of Calvinism in the
period of the Great War, only half a generation after the Synod
of Dordrecht, do not look in the least ascetic in the pictures of
notes
247
Hals. Protests of the Synods against their conduct occur
frequently. The Dutch concept of Deftigkeit is a mixture of
bourgeois-rational honesty and patrician consciousness of sta-
tus. The division of church pews according to classes in the
Dutch churches shows the aristocratic character of this religion
even to-day. The continuance of the town economy hampered
industry. It prospered almost alone through refugees, and
hence only sporadically. Nevertheless, the worldly asceticism of
Calvinism and Pietism was an important influence in Holland
in the same direction as elsewhere. Also in the sense to be
referred to presently of ascetic compulsion to save, as Groen
van Prinsterer shows in the passage cited below, note 87.
Moreover, the almost complete lack of belles lettres in Calvin-
istic Holland is of course no accident (see for instance Busken-
Huet, Het Land van Rembrandt). The significance of Dutch
religion as ascetic compulsion to save appears clearly even in
the eighteenth century in the writings of Albertus Haller. For the
characteristic peculiarities of the Dutch attitude toward art and
its motives, compare for example the autobiographical remarks
of Constantine Huyghens (written in 1629–31) in Oud Holland,
1891. The work of Groen van Prinsterer, La Hollande et l’influ-
ence de Calvin, 1864, already referred to, offers nothing import-
ant for our problems. The New Netherlands colony in America
was socially a half-feudal settlement of patroons, merchants
who advanced capital, and, unlike New England, it was difficult
to persuade small people to settle there.
68 We may recall that the Puritan town government closed the
theatre at Stratford-on-Avon while Shakespeare was still alive
and residing there in his last years. Shakespeare’s hatred and
contempt of the Puritans appear on every occasion. As late as
1777 the City of Birmingham refused to license a theatre
because it was conducive to slothfulness, and hence unfavour-
able to trade (Ashley, Birmingham Trade and Commerce, 1913).
69 Here also it was of decisive importance that for the Puritan
there was only the alternative of divine will or earthly vanity.
Hence for him there could be no adiaphora. As we have already
pointed out, Calvin’s own view was different in this respect.
notes
248
What one eats, wears, etc., as long as there is no enslavement
of the soul to earthly desire as a result, is indifferent. Freedom
from the world should be expressed, as for the Jesuits, in indif-
ference, which for Calvin meant an indifferent, uncovetous use
of whatever goods the earth offered (pp. 409 ff. of the original
edition of the Instit. Christ).
70 The Quaker attitude in this respect is well known. But as early
as the beginning of the seventeenth century the heaviest
storms shook the pious congregation of exiles in Amsterdam
for a decade over the fashionable hats and dresses of a
preacher’s wife (charmingly described in Dexter’s Congrega-
tionalism of the Last Three Hundred Years). Sanford ( op. cit.) has
pointed out that the present-day male hair-cut is that of the
ridiculous Roundheads, and the equally ridiculous (for the
time) male clothing of the Puritans is at least in principle
fundamentally the same as that of to-day.
71 On this point again see Veblen’s Theory of Business Enterprise.
72 Again and again we come back to this attitude. It explains
statements like the following: “Every penny which is paid upon
yourselves and children and friends must be done as by God’s
own appointment and to serve and please Him. Watch nar-
rowly, or else that thievish, carnal self will leave God nothing”
(Baxter, op. cit., I, p. 108). This is decisive; what is expended for
personal ends is withdrawn from the service of God’s glory.
73 Quite rightly it is customary to recall (Dowden, op. cit.) that
Cromwell saved Raphael’s drawings and Mantegna’s Triumph
of Cæsar from destruction, while Charles II tried to sell them.
Moreover, the society of the Restoration was distinctly cool or
even hostile to English national literature. In fact the influence
of Versailles was all-powerful at courts everywhere. A detailed
analysis of the influence of the unfavourable atmosphere for
the spontaneous enjoyment of everyday life on the spirit of the
higher types of Puritan, and the men who went through the
schooling of Puritanism, is a task which cannot be undertaken
within the limits of this sketch. Washington Irving ( Bracebridge
Hall) formulates it in the usual English terms thus : “It [he says
political freedom, we should say Puritanism] evinces less play
notes
249
of the fancy, but more power of the imagination.” It is only neces-
sary to think of the place of the Scotch in science, literature, and
technical invention, as well as in the business life of Great Brit-
ain, to be convinced that this remark approaches the truth, even
though put somewhat too narrowly. We cannot speak here of
its significance for the development of technique and the
empirical sciences. The relation itself is always appearing in
everyday life. For the Quakers, for instance, the recreations which
are permissible (according to Barclay) are: visiting of friends,
reading of historical works, mathematical and physical experi-
ments, gardening, discussion of business and other occurrences
in the world, etc. The reason is that pointed out above.
74 Already very finely analysed in Carl Neumann’s Rembrandt,
which should be compared with the above remarks in general.
75 Thus Baxter in the passage cited above, I, p. 108, and below.
76 Compare the well-known description. of Colonel Hutchinson
(often quoted, for instance, in Sanford, op. cit., p. 57) in the
biography written by his widow. After describing all his chival-
rous virtues and his cheerful, joyous nature, it goes. on: “He
was wonderfully neat, cleanly, and genteel in his habit, and had
a very good fancy in it; but he left off very early the wearing of
anything that was costly.” Quite similar is the ideal of the edu-
cated and highly civilized Puritan woman who, however, is
penurious of two things: (1) time, and (2) expenditure for pomp
and pleasure, as drawn in Baxter’s funeral oration for Mary
Hammer ( Works of the Puritan Divines, p. 533).
77 I think, among many other examples, especially of a manu-
facturer unusually successful in his business ventures, and in
his later years very wealthy, who, when for the treatment of a
troublesome digestive disorder the doctor prescribed a few
oysters a day, could only be brought to comply with difficulty.
Very considerable gifts for philanthropic purposes which he
made during his lifetime and a certain openhandedness
showed, on the other hand, that it was simply a survival of that
ascetic feeling which looks upon enjoyment of wealth for one-
self as morally reprehensible, but has nothing whatever to do
with avarice.
notes
250
78 The separation of workshop, office, of business in general and
the private dwelling, of firm and name, of business capital
and private wealth, the tendency to make of the business a
corpus mysticum (at least in the case of corporate property)
all lay in this direction. On this, see my Handelsgesellschaften
im Mittelalter (Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Sozial- und Wirtschafts-
geschichte, pp. 312 ff.).
79 Sombart in his Kapitalismus (first edition) has already well
pointed out this characteristic phenomenon. It must, however,
be noted that the accumulation of wealth springs from two
quite distinct psychological sources. One reaches into the
dimmest antiquity and is expressed in foundations, family for-
tunes, and trusts, as well as much more purely and clearly in
the desire to die weighted down with a great burden of
material goods; above all to insure the continuation of a busi-
ness even at the cost of the personal interests of the majority
of one’s children. In such cases it is, besides the desire to give
one’s own creation an ideal life beyond one’s death, and thus
to maintain the splendor familiæ and extend the personality of
the founder, a question of, so to speak, fundamentally ego-
centric motives. That is not the case with that bourgeois
motive with which we are here dealing. There the motto of
asceticism is “Entsagen sollst du, sollst entsagen” in the posi-
tive capitalistic sense of “Erwerben sollst du, sollst erwerben”.
In its pure and simple non-rationality it is a sort of categorical
imperative. Only the glory of God and one’s own duty, not
human vanity, is the motive for the Puritans; and to-day only
the duty to one’s calling. If it pleases anyone to illustrate an
idea by its extreme consequences, we may recall the theory of
certain American millionaires, that their millions should not
be left to their children, so that they will not be deprived of the
good moral effects of the necessity of working and earning for
themselves. To-day that idea is certainly no more than a theor-
etical soap-bubble.
80 This is, as must continually be emphasized, the final decisive
religious motive (along with the purely ascetic desire to mortify
the flesh). It is especially clear in the Quakers.
notes
251
81 Baxter (Saints’ Everlasting Rest, p. 12) repudiates this with pre-
cisely the same reasoning as the Jesuits : the body must have
what it needs, otherwise one becomes a slave to it.
82 This ideal is clearly present, especially for Quakerism, in the
first period of its development, as has already been shown in
important points by Weingarten in his Englische Revolution-
skirchen. Also Barclay’s thorough discussion (op. cit., pp. 519 ff.,
533) shows it very clearly. To be avoided are: (1) Worldly vanity;
thus all ostentation, frivolity, and use of things having no prac-
tical purpose, or which are valuable only for their scarcity (i.e.
for vanity’s sake). (2) Any unconscientious use of wealth, such
as excessive expenditure for not very urgent needs above
necessary provision for the real needs of life and for the future.
The Quaker was, so to speak, a living law of marginal utility.
“Moderate use of the creature” is definitely permissible, but in
particular one might pay attention to the quality and durability
of materials so long as it did not lead to vanity. On all this
compare Morgenblatt für gebildete Leser, 1846, pp. 216 ff. Espe-
cially on comfort and solidity among the Quakers, compare
Schneckenburger, Vorlesungen, pp. 96 f.
83 Adapted by Weber from Faust, Act I. Goethe there depicts
Mephistopheles as “Die Kraft, die stets das Böse will, und stets
das Gute schafft”.—Translator’s Note.
84 It has already been remarked that we cannot here enter into the
question of the class relations of these religious movements
(see the essays on the Wirtschaftsethik der Weltreligionen). In
order to see, however, that for example Baxter, of whom we
make so much use in this study, did not see things solely as a
bourgeois of his time, it will suffice to recall that even for him in
the order of the religious value of callings, after the learned
professions comes the husband-man, and only then mariners,
clothiers, booksellers, tailors, etc. Also, under mariners (char-
acteristically enough) he probably thinks at least as often of
fishermen as of shipowners. In this regard several things in the
Talmud are in a different class. Compare, for instance, in
Wünsche, Babyl Talmud, II, pp. 20, 21, the sayings of Rabbi
Eleasar, which though not unchallenged, all contend in effect
notes
252
that business is better than agriculture. In between see II, 2,
p. 68, on the wise investment of capital: one-third in land,
one-third in merchandise, and one-third in cash.
For those to whom no causal explanation is adequate with-
out an economic (or materialistic as it is unfortunately still
called) interpretation, it may be remarked that I consider the
influence of economic development on the fate of religious
ideas to be very important and shall later attempt to show how
in our case the process of mutual adaptation of the two took
place. On the other hand, those religious ideas themselves
simply cannot be deduced from economic circumstances. They
are in themselves, that is beyond doubt, the most powerful
plastic elements of national character, and contain a law of
development and a compelling force entirely their own. More-
over, the most important differences, so far as non-religious
factors play a part, are, as with Lutheranism and Calvinism, the
result of political circumstances, not economic.
85 That is what Eduard Bernstein means to express when he says,
in the essay referred to above (pp. 625, 681), “Asceticism is a
bourgeois virtue.” His discussion is the first which has sug-
gested these important relationships. But the connection is a
much wider one than he suspected. For not only the accumula-
tion of capital, but the ascetic rationalization of the whole of
economic life was involved.
For the American Colonies, the difference between the Puritan
North, where, on account of the ascetic compulsion to save,
capital in search of investment was always available, from the
conditions in the South has already been clearly brought out by
Doyle.
86 Doyle, The English in America, II, chap. i. The existence of iron-
works (1643), weaving for the market (1659), and also the high
development of the handicrafts in New England in the first
generation after the foundation of the colonies are, from a
purely economic view-point, astounding. They are in striking
contrast to the conditions in the South, as well as the non-
Calvinistic Rhode Island with its complete freedom of con-
science. There, in spite of the excellent harbour, the report of
notes
253
the Governor and Council of 1686 said: “The great obstruction
concerning trade is the want of merchants and men of con-
siderable estates amongst us” (Arnold, History of the State of
Rhode Island, p. 490). It can in fact hardly be doubted that the
compulsion continually to reinvest savings, which the Puritan
curtailment of consumption exercised, played a part. In add-
ition there was the part of Church discipline which cannot be
discussed here.
87 That, however, these circles rapidly diminished in the Nether-
lands is shown by Busken-Huet’s discussion ( op. cit., II, chaps.
iii and iv). Nevertheless, Groen van Prinsterer says ( Handb. der
Gesch. van het Vaderland, third edition, par. 303, note, p. 254),
“De Nederlanders verkoopen veel en verbruiken wenig”, even
of the time after the Peace of Westphalia.
88 For England, for instance, a petition of an aristocratic Royalist
(quoted in Ranke, Engl. Geschichte, IV, p. 197) presented after
the entry of Charles II into London, advocated a legal prohib-
ition of the acquisition of landed estates by bourgeois capital,
which should thereby be forced to find employment in trade.
The class of Dutch regents was distinguished as an estate from
the bourgeois patricians of the cities by the purchase of landed
estates. See the complaints, cited by Fruin, Tien jaren uit den
tachtigjarigen oorlog, of the year 1652, that the regents have
become landlords and are no longer merchants. To be sure
these circles had never been at bottom strictly Calvinistic. And
the notorious scramble for membership in the nobility and
titles in large parts of the Dutch middle class in the second
half of the seventeenth century in itself shows that at least for
this period the contrast between English and Dutch conditions
must be accepted with caution. In this case the power of
hereditary moneyed property broke through the ascetic spirit.
89 Upon the strong movement for bourgeois capital to buy
English landed estates followed the great period of prosperity
of English agriculture.
90 Even down into this century Anglican landlords have often
refused to accept Nonconformists as tenants. At the present
time the two parties of the Church are of approximately equal
notes
254
numbers, while in earlier times the Nonconformists were
always in the minority.
91 H. Levy (article in Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft and Sozialpolitik,
XLVI, p. 605) rightly notes that according to the native character
of the English people, as seen from numerous of its traits, they
were, if anything, less disposed to welcome an ascetic ethic and
the middle-class virtues than other peoples. A hearty and
unrestrained enjoyment of life was, and is, one of their funda-
mental traits. The power of Puritan asceticism at the time of its
predominance is shown most strikingly in the astonishing
degree to which this trait of character was brought under
discipline among its adherents.
92 This contrast recurs continually in Doyle’s presentation. In the
attitude of the Puritan to everything the religious motive always
played an important part (not always, of course, the sole
important one). The colony (under Winthrop’s leadership) was
inclined to permit the settlement of gentlemen in Mas-
sachusetts, even an upper house with a hereditary nobility, if
only the gentlemen would adhere to the Church. The colony
remained closed for the sake of Church discipline. The colon-
ization of New Hampshire and Maine was carried out by large
Anglican merchants, who laid out large stock-raising plan-
tations. Between them and the Puritans there was very little
social connection. There were complaints over the strong
greed for profits of the New Englanders as early as 1632 (see
Weeden’s Economic and Social History of New England, I, p. 125).
93 This is noted by Petty (Pol. Arith.), and all the contemporary
sources without exception speak in particular of the Puritan
sectarians, Baptists, Quakers, Mennonites, etc., as belonging
partly to a propertyless class, partly to one of small capitalists,
and contrast them both with the great merchant aristocracy
and the financial adventurers. But it was from just this small
capitalist class, and not from the great financial magnates,
monopolists, Government contractors, great lenders to the
King, colonial entrepreneurs, promoters, etc., that there origin-
ated what was characteristic of Occidental capitalism : the
middle-class organization of industrial labour on the basis of
notes
255
private property (see Unwin, Industrial Organization in the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, London, 1914, pp. 196 ff.).
To see that this difference was fully known even to con-
temporaries, compare Parker’s Discourse Concerning Puritans of
1641, where the contrast to promoters and courtiers is also
emphasized.
94 On the way in which this was expressed in the politics of
Pennsylvania in the eighteenth century, especially during the
War of Independence, see Sharpless, A Quaker Experiment in
Government, Philadelphia, 1902.
95 Quoted in Southey, Life of Wesley, chap. xxix (second American
edition, II, p. 308). For the reference, which I did not know, I
am indebted to a letter from Professor Ashley (1913). Ernst
Troeltsch, to whom I communicated it for the purpose, has
already made use of it.
96 The reading of this passage may be recommended to all those
who consider themselves to-day better informed on these mat-
ters than the leaders and contemporaries of the movements
themselves. As we see, they knew very well what they were
doing and what dangers they faced. It is really inexcusable to
contest so lightly, as some of my critics have done, facts
which are quite beyond dispute, and have hitherto never been
disputed by anyone. All I have done is to investigate their
underlying motives somewhat more carefully. No one in the
seventeenth century doubted the existence of these relation-
ships (compare Manley, Usury of 6 per Cent. Examined, 1669, p.
137). Besides the modern writers already noted, poets like
Heine and Keats, as well as historians like Macaulay, Cun-
ningham, Rogers, or an essayist such as Matthew Arnold, have
assumed them as obvious. From the most recent literature see
Ashley, Birmingham Industry and Commerce (1913). He has also
expressed his complete agreement with me in correspondence.
On the whole problem now compare the study by H. Levy
referred to above, note 91.
97 Weber’s italics.
98 That exactly the same things were obvious to the Puritans of
the classical era cannot perhaps be more clearly shown than by
notes
256
the fact that in Bunyan Mr. Money-Love argues that one may
become religious in order to get rich, for instance to attract
customers. For why one has become religious makes no dif-
ference (see p. 114, Tauchnitz edition).
99 Defoe was a zealous Nonconformist.
100 Spener also (Theologische Bedenken, pp. 426, 429, 432 ff.),
although he holds that the merchant’s calling is full of tempta-
tions and pitfalls, nevertheless declares in answer to a ques-
tion: “I am glad to see, so far as trade is concerned, that my
dear friend knows no scruples, but takes it as an art of life,
which it is, in which much good may be done for the human
race, and God’s will may be carried out through love.” This is
more fully justified in other passages by mercantilist argu-
ments. Spener, at times in a purely Lutheran strain, designates
the desire to become rich as the main pitfall, following 1 Tim.
vi, viii, and ix, and referring to Jesus Sirach (see above), and
hence rigidly to be condemned. But, on the other hand, he
takes some of it back by referring to the prosperous sectarians
who yet live righteously (see above, note 39). As the result of
industrious work wealth is not objectionable to him either. But
on account of the Lutheran influence his standpoint is less
consistent than that of Baxter.
101 Baxter, op cit., II, p. 16, warns against the employment of
“heavy, flegmatic, sluggish, fleshly, slothful persons” as ser-
vants, and recommends preference for godly servants, not
only because ungodly servants would be mere eye-servants,
but above all because “a truly godly servant will do all your
service in obedience to God, as if God Himself had bid him do
it”. Others, on the other hand, are inclined “to make no great
matter of conscience of it”. However, the criterion of saintli-
ness of the workman is not for him the external confession of
faith, but the “conscience to do their duty”. It appears here
that the interests of God and of the employers are curiously
harmonious. Spener also (Theologische Bedenken, III, p. 272),
who otherwise strongly urges taking time to think of God,
assumes it to be obvious that workers must be satisfied
with the extreme minimum of leisure time (even on Sundays).
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English writers have rightly called the Protestant immigrants
the pioneers of skilled labour. See also proofs in H. Levy, Die
Grundlagen des ökonomischen Liberalimus in der Geschichte der
englischen Volkswirtschaft, p. 53.
102 The analogy between the unjust (according to human stand-
ards) predestination of only a few and the equally unjust, but
equally divinely ordained, distribution of wealth, was too obvi-
ous to be escaped. See for example Hoornbeek, op. cit., I, p.
153. Furthermore, as for Baxter, op. cit., I, p. 380, poverty is
very often a symptom of sinful slothfulness.
103 Thomas Adams (Works of the Puritan Divines, p. 158) thinks
that God probably allows so many people to remain poor
because He knows that they would not be able to withstand
the temptations that go with wealth. For wealth all too often
draws men away from religion.
104 See above, note 45, and the study of H. Levy referred to there.
The same is noted in all the discussions (thus by Manley for
the Huguenots).
105 Charisma is a sociological term coined by Weber himself. It
refers to the quality of leadership which appeals to non-
rational motives. See Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, pp. 140 ff.—
Translator’s Note.
106 Similar things were not lacking in England. There was, for
example, that Pietism which, starting from Law’s Serious Call
(1728), preached poverty, chastity, and, originally, isolation
from the world.
107 Baxter’s activity in Kidderminster, a community absolutely
debauched when he arrived, which was almost unique in the
history of the ministry for its success, is at the same time a
typical example of how asceticism educated the masses to
labour, or, in Marxian terms, to the production of surplus
value, and thereby for the first time made their employment in
the capitalistic labour relation (putting-out industry, weaving,
etc.) possible at all. That is very generally the causal relation-
ship. From Baxter’s own view-point he accepted the employ-
ment of his charges in capitalistic production for the sake of
his religious and ethical interests. From the standpoint of the
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258
development of capitalism these latter were brought into the
service of the development of the spirit of capitalism.
108 Furthermore, one may well doubt to what extent the joy of the
mediæval craftsman in his creation, which is so commonly
appealed to, was effective as a psychological motive force.
Nevertheless, there is undoubtedly something in that thesis.
But in any case asceticism certainly deprived all labour of this
worldly attractiveness, to-day for ever destroyed by capitalism,
and oriented it to the beyond. Labour in a calling as such is
willed by God. The impersonality of present-day labour, what,
from the standpoint of the individual, is its joyless lack of
meaning, still has a religious justification here. Capitalism at
the time of its development needed labourers who were avail-
able for economic exploitation for conscience’ sake. To-day it is
in the saddle, and hence able to force people to labour without
transcendental sanctions.
109 Petty, Political Arithmetick, Works, edited by Hull, I, p. 262.
110 On these conflicts and developments see H. Levy in the hook
cited above. The very powerful hostility of public opinion to
monopolies, which is characteristic of England, originated his-
torically in a combination of the political struggle for power
against the Crown—the Long Parliament excluded monopol-
ists from its membership—with the ethical motives of Pur-
itanism; and the economic interests of the small bourgeois
and moderate-scale capitalists against the financial magnates
in the seventeenth century. The Declaration of the Army of
August 2, 1652, as well the Petition of the Levellers of January
28, 1653, demand, besides the abolition of excises, tariffs, and
indirect taxes, and the introduction of a single tax on estates,
above all free trade, i.e. the abolition of the monopolistic bar-
riers to trade at home and abroad, as a violation of the natural
rights of man.
111 Compare H. Levy, Die Grundlagen des ökonomischen Liberalis-
mus in des Geschichte des englischen Volkswirtschaft, pp. 51 f.
112 That those other elements, which have here not yet been
traced to their religious roots, especially the idea that honesty
is the best policy (Franklin’s discussion of credit), are also of
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259
Puritan origin, must be proved in a somewhat different con-
nection (see the following essay [not translated here]). Here I
shall limit myself to repeating the following remark of J. A.
Rowntree ( Quakerism, Past and Present, pp. 95–6), to which E.
Bernstein has called my attention : “Is it merely a coincidence,
or is it a consequence, that the lofty profession of spirituality
made by the Friends has gone hand in hand with shrewdness
and tact in the transaction of mundane affairs? Real piety
favours the success of a trader by insuring his integrity and
fostering habits of prudence and forethought, important
items in obtaining that standing and credit in the commercial
world, which are requisites for the steady accumulation of
wealth” (see the following essay). “Honest as a Huguenot”
was as proverbial in the seventeenth century as the respect for
law of the Dutch which Sir W. Temple admired, and, a century
later, that of the English as compared with those Continental
peoples that had not been through this ethical schooling.
113 Well analysed in Bielschowsky’s Goethe, II, chap. xviii. For the
development of the scientific cosmos Windelband, at the end
of his Blütezeit der deutschen Philosophie (Vol. II of the Gesch. d.
Neueren Philosophie), has expressed a similar idea.
114 Saints’ Everlasting Rest, chap. xii.
115 “Couldn’t the old man be satisfied with his $75,000 a year and
rest? No! The frontage of the store must be widened to 400
feet. Why? That beats everything, he says. In the evening when
his wife and daughter read together, he wants to go to bed.
Sundays he looks at the clock every five minutes to see when
the day will be over—what a futile life!” In these terms the son-
in-law (who had emigrated from Germany) of the leading dry-
goods man of an Ohio city expressed his judgment of the
latter, a judgment which would undoubtedly have seemed
simply incomprehensible to the old man. A symptom of
German lack of energy.
116 This remark alone (unchanged since his criticism) might
have shown Brentano ( op. cit.) that I have never doubted its
independent significance. That humanism was also not
pure rationalism has lately again been strongly emphasized
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260
by Borinski in the Abhandl. der Münchener Akad. der Wiss.,
1919.
117 The academic oration of v. Below, Die Ursachen der Reforma-
tion (Freiburg, 1916), is not concerned with this problem, but
with that of the Reformation in general, especially Luther. For
the question dealt with here, especially the controversies
which have grown out of this study, I may refer finally to the
work of Hermelink, Reformation und Gegenreformation, which,
however, is also primarily concerned with other problems.
118 For the above sketch has deliberately taken up only the rela-
tions in which an influence of religious ideas on the material
culture is really beyond doubt. It would have been easy to
proceed beyond that to a regular construction which logically
deduced everything characteristic of modern culture from
Protestant rationalism. But that sort of thing may be left to the
type of dilettante who believes in the unity of the group mind
and its reducibility to a single formula. Let it be remarked only
that the period of capitalistic development lying before that
which we have studied was everywhere in part determined by
religious influences, both hindering and helping. Of what sort
these were belongs in another chapter. Furthermore, whether,
of the broader problems sketched above, one or another can
be dealt with in the limits of this Journal [the essay first
appeared in the Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik—
Translator’s Note] is not certain in view of the problems to
which it is devoted. On the other hand, to write heavy tomes,
as thick as they would have to be in this case, and dependent
on the work of others (theologians and historians), I have no
great inclination (I have left these sentences unchanged).
For the tension between ideals and reality in early capital-
istic times before the Reformation, see now Strieder, Studien
zur Geschichte der kapit. Organizationsformen, 1914, Book II.
(Also as against the work of Keller, cited above, which was
utilized by Sombart.)
119 I should have thought that this sentence and the remarks and
notes immediately preceding it would have sufficed to prevent
any misunderstanding of what this study was meant to
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261
accomplish, and I find no occasion for adding anything.
Instead of following up with an immediate continuation in
terms of the above programme, I have, partly for fortuitous
reasons, especially the appearance of Troeltsch’s Die Sozial-
lehren der christlichen Kirchen und Gruppen, which disposed of
many things I should have had to investigate in a way in which
I, not being a theologian, could not have done it; but partly
also in order to correct the isolation of this study and to place
it in relation to the whole of cultural development, deter-
mined, first, to write down some comparative studies of the
general historical relationship of religion and society. These
follow. Before them is placed only a short essay in order to
clear up the concept of sect used above, and at the same time
to show the significance of the Puritan conception of the
Church for the capitalistic spirit of modern times.
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