PS70CH12_Hall
ARI
9 November 2018
11:53
Paralanguage:
vocal
behavior that occurs
with or substitutes for
words, including
fundamental
frequency; amplitude;
rate; pitch contour;
and sighs, cries, and
other non-word
sounds
may be a biomarker of schizotypal personality disorder in adults (Dickey et al. 2012). Atypical gaze
patterns, eye movements, facial expressiveness, hand gestures (e.g., flapping), and pupil activity
represent potential markers for anxiety, depression, autism, or schizophrenia (Benson et al. 2016,
Loveland et al. 1994, Martineau et al. 2011, Reed et al. 2007, Trevisan et al. 2016, Wieser et al.
2010, Yirmiya et al. 1989). Children with autism display facial expressions that appear more
neutral, ambiguous, or mechanical (Loveland et al. 1994, Yirmiya et al. 1989), and they show less
facial expressivity when distressed (Esposito et al. 2011). Such differences may be due to deficits
that children with autism have in common with alexithymic individuals (Trevisan et al. 2016). At
present, the evidence is mixed regarding whether gaze aversion is a potential marker of autism
(Adrien et al. 1993, Moriuchi et al. 2017).
Other nonverbal cues may be more dynamic in nature because they are sent either noncon-
sciously (quadrant 2) or consciously (quadrant 3) in response to specific situational factors. In terms
of gaze, Wieser et al. (2010) observed that socially anxious people gazed less (compared to non–
socially anxious people) at a male avatar that was facing them from a distance in a virtual reality
setup, a pattern that is also demonstrated by socially anxious people in potentially confrontational
interactions with real people (Knapp et al. 2014). Reed et al. (2007) noted that depressed adults
appear to actively suppress felt happiness with their facial muscles.
In terms of quadrant 4, senders may more or less consciously provide cues to their personality
problems via dress and by how they design, decorate, and use the various spaces (including virtual)
that they own (Eftekhar et al. 2014, Vazire et al. 2008). Vazire et al. (2008) noted that flashy
clothes were one of the features associated with narcissists. With respect to Facebook usage,
neurotic individuals post more pictures, and their albums contain more pictures (Eftekhar et al.
2014).
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