Cues That Are Seen Social categorization is a fundamental aspect of human cognition. The potential informational
value of various sender cues is thus an important line of basic research within the domain of non-
verbal encoding. It also is important to both traditional (e.g., psychiatric diagnoses) and emerging
(e.g., biometrics and human–robot interactions) domains. During interactions, senders noncon-
sciously encode information about themselves that is more or less static (e.g., markers), such as
their identity, biological sex, psychological and developmental problems, and social and personal-
ity attributes. These markers likely emerge as a consequence of genetic, biological, developmental,
and learning factors, among others. In this section, we discuss illustrative cues that are visible to
an actual or potential perceiver and that have potential informational value as markers for social
categorization. The potential value of cues is stressed because the meaning of any cue or set of
cues is probabilistic at best and may hinge on a host of other encoded cues, sender characteristics,
perceiver qualities, and contextual and situational factors, as stated above. This aspect of nonverbal
encoding is covered in the section titled Cues That Are Heard.
Individual identity. Senders’ unique identities can be communicated via a number of nonverbal
channels, including their gait (Takemura et al. 2018), the iris of the eye (Sibai et al. 2011), and
body odor (Rodriguez-Lujan et al. 2013). For example, Rodriguez-Lujan et al. (2013) provided
evidence that hand odor may serve as a biomarker of identity. However, much of this research
is situated in the computer science domain of biometrics; its generalizability to everyday person
identification among humans is therefore unclear.
Biological sex and gender. Some encoded cues signal senders’ biological sex or gender. Mutic
et al. (2015) did not find that armpit odor was a marker of a sender’s gender, but differences in
bodily expressiveness or restlessness, gait, gazing, and the voice have been found to distinguish
women from men. The faces, voices, and hands of women tend to be more expressive than men’s;
men tend to have more restless feet and legs than women; and men’s arms and legs tend to be more
open. During interactions, women tend to gaze, touch, and smile more at others than do men, and
they stand closer to others, as well, unless the topic is threatening or alienating in nature (Hall &
Gunnery 2013, LaFrance et al. 2003). The gait patterns of men and women are different in both
young and older adults, largely due to differences in their average heights and body shapes (Cho
et al. 2004, Ko et al. 2011). A number of vocal differences exist, as well; for example, men have
louder voices, use filled pauses and interruptions more often, and show more speech dysfluencies
(Knapp et al. 2014). Yet in terms of the voice, major markers of gender appear to be timbre and
pitch (Pernet & Belin 2012); for example, men tend to have a lower vocal pitch than women.