Recommendations
Class
a
Level
b
In the presence of aortic atherosclerosis,
general preventive measures to control
risk factors are indicated.
I
C
In the case of aortic plaque detected
during the diagnostic work-up after
stroke or peripheral embolism,
anticoagulation or antiplatelet therapy
should be considered. The choice
between the two strategies depends on
comorbidities and other indications for
these treatments.
IIa
C
Prophylactic surgery to remove high-risk
aortic plaque is not recommended.
III
C
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
9.2 Mobile aortic thrombosis
Mobile thrombi in the aorta of young patients without diffuse ath-
erosclerosis have been reported since the regular use of TOE in
patients with cerebral or peripheral emboli, mostly located at the
aortic arch. The pathophysiology of these lesions is unclear, since
thrombophilic states are not frequently found.
520
In the largest
series of 23 patients (of 27 855 examinations) with mobile
thrombi of the aortic arch, only four cases presented thrombophilic
states. Thrombi may present a paradoxical embolism via an open
foramen ovale. The thrombi were attached either on a small aortic
plaque or a visually normal wall. Medical treatment (heparinization),
endovascular stenting, or surgery have been proposed, but no
comparative data are available.
9.3 Atherosclerotic aortic occlusion
Abdominal aortic occlusion is rare and results in a major threat of leg
amputation or death. Extensive collateralization usually prevents the
manifestation of acute ischaemic phenomena.
520
Aortic occlusion
can also be precipitated by hypercoagulable states. Aetiopathogenic
factors of the disease include small vessel size, cardiac thrombo-
embolism, AD, and distal aortic coarctation. This condition may be
either asymptomatic or present with sudden onset of intermittent
claudication. Symptoms may worsen progressively until low flow
leads to obstruction of collateral vasculature, causing severe ischae-
mic manifestation in the lower extremities, the spinal cord, intestine
and kidney, depending on the site and extension of obstruction. The
diagnosis is mostly made with the use of Doppler ultrasonography.
Other imaging techniques (CT or MRI) yield more detailed infor-
mation that can guide the planning of treatment. Treatment may
be bypass grafting or aorto-iliac endarterectomy. Endovascular
therapy has also been proposed.
9.4 Calcified aorta
Calcification occurs in the media, and the amount of calcification is dir-
ectly associated with the extent of atherosclerosis. The presence of
severe atherosclerosis of the aorta causes an eggshell-like appearance
visualized on chest X-ray (porcelain aorta). The calcification interferes
significantly with cannulation of the aorta, cross-clamping, and place-
ment of coronary bypass grafts, significantly increasing the risk of
stroke and distal embolism. Off-pump coronary bypass and the im-
plantation of transcatheter aortic heart valves may render a solution
in patients requiring, respectively, coronary bypass grafting and
aortic valve replacement with porcelain aorta [15.1% of patients in
the Placement of AoRtic TraNscathetER Valves (PARTNER) cohort
B trial with aortic stenosis were inoperable due to porcelain aorta].
521
9.5 Coral reef aorta
‘Coral reef’ aorta is a very rare calcifying stenotic disease of the juxta
renal and suprarenal aorta. Only case reports exist, except for one
group reporting a series of .80 cases, most of them women, over
24 years.
522
Coral reef aorta is described as rock-hard calcifications
in the visceral part of the aorta. These heavily calcified plaques
grow into the lumen and can cause significant stenosis, which may
develop into bowel ischaemia, renal failure, or hypertension due to
renal ischaemia. The aetiology and pathogenesis are still uncertain al-
though it has been proposed that calcification of a fibrin-platelet
thrombus may result in this lesion. This may occur at the site of
an initial injury to the aortic endothelium. Vascular surgery was
used in the past but, recently, endovascular interventions play a
greater role, particularly in high-risk individuals with multiple co-
morbidities.
523
10. Aortitis
10.1 Definition, types, and diagnosis
Aortitis is the general term used to define inflammation of the
aortic wall. The most common causes of aortitis are non-infectious
ESC Guidelines
2916
inflammatory vasculitis, namely giant cell (or temporal) arteritis
(GCA) and Takayasu arteritis (Web Table
4
).
524
,
525
Non-infectious
aortitis has also been described in other inflammatory conditions
such as Becet’s disease,
526
Buerger disease, Kawasaki disease, anky-
losing spondylarthritis, and Reiter’s syndrome.
527
Although less
common, infections due to Staphylococcus, Salmonella, and mycobac-
teria have been reported to cause infective aortic disease, supplanting
the infection by Treponema pallidum in the past.
528
10.1.1 Giant cell arteritis
Giant cell arteritis tends to affect the older population, more often by
far in women than in men. When the aorta is affected, it may result in
thoracic aortic aneurysm. Although, classically, the temporal and/or
other cranial arteries are involved, the aorta and its major branches
are affected in approximately 10 – 18% of cases.
514
,
524
,
528
Dilations
of the aortic root and ascending aorta are common and can lead to
AD or rupture.
524
If a diagnosis of extracranial GCA is suspected,
echocardiography, CT, or MRI are recommended.
529
A thickened
aortic wall on CT or MRI indicates inflammation of the aortic wall,
and thus active disease.
530
Studies with PET scanning have suggested
that subclinical aortic inflammation is often present in patients with
GCA.
531
Along with the usual inflammatory markers, measurement
of interleukin-6 may be useful in patients with suspected GCA.
10.1.2 Takayasu arteritis
Takayasu arteritis is a rare, large-vessel vasculitis of unknown aeti-
ology, typically affecting young women.
532
It occurs most often in
the Asian population. The overall rate is 2.6 per million inhabitants.
533
The thoracic aorta and its major branches are the most frequent loca-
tions of the disease, followed by the abdominal aorta. While the initial
stages of the disease include signs and symptoms of systemic inflam-
mation, the chronic phase reflects vascular involvement. The clinical
presentation of Takayasu arteritis varies across a spectrum of symp-
toms and clinical signs, ranging from back- or abdominal pain with
fever to acute severe aortic insufficiency, or to an incidentally identi-
fied large thoracic aortic aneurysm.
525
,
528
,
532
Upper extremity claudication, stroke, dizziness, or syncope usually
indicate supra-aortic vessel obstruction. Hypertension is sometimes
malignant and suggests narrowing of the aorta or renal arteries. AAS,
including AD and rupture, can occur. Inflammation-associated
thrombus formation in the aortic lumen with peripheral embolization
has also been reported.
528
,
532
In the case of suspicion of Takayasu arteritis, imaging the entire
aorta is of critical importance, to establish the diagnosis. All imaging
modalities play an important role in the diagnosis and follow-up of
Takayasu arteritis. Digital subtraction angiography of the aorta and
its branches provides only information regarding luminal changes, a
late feature in the disease course.
530
Echocardiography, MRI, and
CT are useful in demonstrating homogeneous circumferential thick-
ening of the aortic wall with a uniform smooth internal surface.
529
This finding could be misdiagnosed as an IMH. Compared with echo-
graphy, CT and MRI provide better assessment of the entire aorta and
its proximal branches, as well as distal pulmonary arteries that are
sometimes affected. MRI may show arterial wall oedema, a marker
of active disease.
528
,
530
In the chronic stage, the aortic wall may
become calcified, best assessed by CT. A PET scan may be particularly
useful in detecting vascular inflammation when combined with
traditional cross-sectional imaging modalities.
531
Inflammation bio-
markers, such as C-reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, are elevated in approximately 70% of patients in acute phase
and 50% in the chronic phase of the disease.
528
Pentraxin-3 may
have a better accuracy in differentiating the active- from the inactive
phase of Takayasu arteritis.
10.2 Treatment
In non-infectious aortitis, corticosteroids are the standard initial
therapy.
534
In general, an initial dose of 0.5 – 1 mg/kg prednisone
daily is prescribed. This treatment is typically required for 1 – 2
years to avoid recurrence, although the dose may be tapered off
2 – 3 months after initiation. Despite this prolonged regimen, nearly
half of patients will relapse during tapering, requiring additional
immunosuppression.
535
In addition to recurrent symptoms, re-
elevation of inflammatory markers may be a helpful sign of relapse,
particularly among patients with GCA. The value of oedema-
weighted MRI and 18F-FDG PET in the diagnosis of relapse in
Takayasu arteritis is an area under continuing investigation. Second-
line agents include methotrexate, azathioprine, and anti-tumour ne-
crosis factor-alpha agents.
536
A comprehensive vascular examination should be performed at
each visit, in combination with follow-up of inflammation biomarkers
and periodic imaging for the development of thoracic or abdominal
aortic aneurysm, given the known risk of these complications.
524
,
528
The indications for revascularization for aortic stenosis or aneurysm
are similar to those in non-inflammatory disorders. The risk of graft
failure is higher in patients with active local inflammation.
537
–
539
Ideally, patients should be in clinical remission before elective
repair of an aortitis-related aneurysm.
528
,
534
Suspected infectious aortitis requires rapid diagnosis and intraven-
ous antibiotics with broad antimicrobial coverage of the most likely
pathological organisms (particularly Staphylococcal and gram-
negative species).
11. Aortic tumours
11.1 Primary malignant tumours
of the aorta
Primary malignant tumours of the aorta are an extremely rare class of
sarcomas exhibiting a wide histopathological heterogeneity. Intimal
sarcomas, the most common, are derived from endothelial cells
(angiosarcoma) or from myofibroblasts. Leiosarcomas and fibrosar-
comas originate from the media or adventitia of the aortic wall.
541
The symptoms associated with aortic tumours are non-specific
and mimic atherosclerotic disease of the aorta, peripheral artery dis-
eases, gastrointestinal or renal pain syndromes, or vertebral disk her-
niation. The most characteristic and frequently reported clinical
presentation of an intimal angiosarcoma of the aorta is the embolic
occlusion of the mesenteric or peripheral artery. Most often the
ante mortem diagnosis is made by immunohistopathological examin-
ation of endarterectomy or aortic resection specimens. Only in a very
small number of cases the diagnosis is suspected on pre-operative
MRI of the aorta.
Owing to its atypical and highly variable symptomatology, this very
rare condition is most often diagnosed only in an advanced stage.
ESC Guidelines
2917
In patients with peripheral or splanchnic emboli, an aortic sarcoma
should be included in the differential diagnosis, especially in patients
with mild or absent underlying atherosclerotic disease. After a
cardiac source of the embolism is ruled out, contrast-enhanced
MRI of the thoracic and abdominal aorta should be performed, as
this investigation is the most sensitive diagnostic tool for detection
of an aortic tumour. If an aortic lesion is found that is suggestive of
a sarcoma, additional ultrasound examination may demonstrate in-
homogeneity of the lesion, which is atypical for a mural thrombus.
If the diagnosis of an aortic sarcoma is suspected, bone scintigraphy
is recommended owing to the high prevalence of bone metastasis.
Based on reported cases, the recommended therapy involves en
bloc resection of the tumour-involved portion of the aorta with nega-
tive surgical margins, followed by graft interposition; however, owing
to the late diagnosis—frequently at a stage already complicated by
the presence of metastases, the location of the aortic lesion, or the
presence of comorbidities—this intervention is mostly unfeasible.
Other approaches can be endarterectomy or endovascular grafting
of the involved segment of the aorta. Adjuvant or palliative chemo-
therapy and radiation have been used in selected cases and may
result in a prolonged survival.
The prognosis for aortic sarcomas is poor, with metastatic disease
leading to death in a short time in most patients. Mean survival from
the time of diagnosis is 16 + 2.4 months.
541
Overall survival at 3 years
is 11.2%. Following surgical resection, the 3-year survival rates
increased to 16.5%.
542
12. Long-term follow-up of aortic
diseases
Patients with aortic disease usually require life-long surveillance, re-
gardless of the initial treatment strategy (medical, interventional, or
surgical). This surveillance consists of clinical evaluation, reassess-
ment of a patient’s medical therapies and treatment goals, as well
as imaging of the aorta. This section includes the chronic phase of
AD after discharge and as well as specific aspects of follow-up in
patients who took benefit from an aortic intervention.
12.1 Chronic aortic dissection
12.1.1 Definition and classification
Survivors of an acute AD ultimately enter a chronic disease course.
Previously, AD was considered chronic 14 days after onset of symp-
toms. It is now accepted practice to further divide the time course of
AD into acute (,14 days), sub-acute (15 – 90 days), and chronic
(.90 days) phases. Chronic AD can either be uncomplicated, with
a stable disease course, or complicated by progressive aneurysmal
degeneration, chronic visceral or limb malperfusion, and persisting
or recurrent pain or even rupture. Patients with chronic AD also
include those previously operated for Type A AD, with persisting dis-
section of the descending aorta.
12.1.2 Presentation
Two clinical patterns should be distinguished: patients with initially
acute AD entering the chronic phase of the disease and those in
whom first diagnosis of chronic AD is made. Patients with newly diag-
nosed chronic AD are often asymptomatic. The lesion is found
incidentally as mediastinal widening or prominent aortic knob on
chest X-ray. In these patients, the exact timing of dissection is often
difficult. The patient’s history has to be carefully evaluated for a pre-
vious acute pain event. Infrequently, patients may also present symp-
toms related to the enlarging dissected aorta (hoarseness, new onset
chest pain), or chronic malperfusion (abdominal pain, claudication,
altered renal function) or acute chest pain indicating rupture.
12.1.3 Diagnosis
Diagnosis has to be confirmed by cross-sectional imaging such as
contrast-enhanced CT, TOE, or MRI. Chronicity of AD is suggested
by imaging characteristics: thickened, immobile intimal flap, presence
of thrombus in the FL, or aneurysms of the thoracic aorta secondary
to chronic AD, mostly developed in the distal aortic arch. In symp-
tomatic patients, signs of (contained) rupture such as mediastinal
haematoma or pleural effusion may be present.
12.1.4 Treatment
In patients with chronic, uncomplicated Type B AD, a primary ap-
proach with medical therapy and repetitive clinical and imaging
follow-up is recommended. Competitive sports and isometric
heavy weight lifting should be discouraged, to reduce aortic wall
shear stress due to sudden rises in arterial blood pressure during
such exercise. Body contact sport activities should also be discour-
aged, while leisure sportive activities with low static/low dynamic
stress are acceptable.
Blood pressure should be lowered to ,130/80 mm Hg. Weight
lifting activities should be restricted to avoid blood pressure peaks.
Beta-blockers have been seen to be associated with reduced aneur-
ysmal degeneration of the dissected aorta and reduced incidence of
late dissection-related aortic procedures in non-randomized
studies.
543
A contemporary analysis of the IRAD database, compris-
ing a total of 1301 patients with Type A and Type B acute AD, showed
that beta-blockers (prescribed to 88.6% of patients) were the most
commonly used medication and suggested that their use was asso-
ciated with improved survival.
544
Calcium channel blockers were
associated with improved survival, selectively in those with Type B
dissections, while renin-angiotensin system inhibitors were not sig-
nificantly associated with survival.
544
Angiotensin-1 antagonists
(losartan) are conceptually attractive and have been shown to slow
aortic enlargement in Marfan patients.
96
,
545
No data exist on the
use of angiotensin-1 blockers in chronic AD. So far, angiotensin-1
blockers may be considered for antihypertensive combination
therapy if beta-blockers alone do not achieve the blood pressure
target.
The INvestigation of STEnt-grafts in Aortic Dissection trial did not
show any survival benefit of TEVAR over optimal medical therapy in
patients with asymptomatic sub-acute/chronic AD during 2-year
follow-up.
218
,
219
The 5-year aorta-related mortality was 0% vs
16.9%, respectively, in TEVAR plus medical therapy vs. medical
therapy alone. All-cause mortality at 5 years was 11.1% vs. 19.3%, re-
spectively (P ¼ not significant), and progression 27% vs. 46.1% (P ¼
0.04). Morphological results were, however, significantly improved
by TEVAR (aortic remodelling 91.3% with TEVAR vs. 19.4%). It
should be noted that 16% of patients initially randomized to
optimal medical therapy required crossover to TEVAR due to evolv-
ing complications during follow-up. Deferred TEVAR could be
ESC Guidelines
2918
successfully performed in these patients without increased mortality
or complications. A recent multicentre study from China, covering
303 patients with chronic AD, showed lower aorta-related mortality
for TEVAR than with medical therapy but failed to improve the overall
survival rate or lower the rate of aorta-related adverse events.
546
Patients with chronic Type B AD that is complicated by progressive
thoracic aortic enlargement (.10 mm/year), FL aneurysms (with
total aortic diameter .60 mm), malperfusion syndrome, or recur-
rent pain, require TEVAR or surgical treatment. The optimal treat-
ment in patients with chronic AD is, however, unclear. No
randomized comparison of TEVAR and conventional surgery
exists. Thoracic endovascular aortic repair may be used to exclude
the aneurysm, which is typically located in the distal aortic arch,
and prevent rupture; however, aortic remodelling cannot be
expected, due to the thickened, immobile intimal flap. Smaller case
series have shown that TEVAR is feasible in patients with aneurysm
of the descending thoracic aorta secondary to chronic AD, with an
acceptable mid-term outcome.
547
Complete aortic remodelling
was observed in only 36% of patients after TEVAR.
547
In a review
of 17 studies including 567 patients,
548
the technical success rate
was 89.9%, with mid-term mortality 9.2%. Endoleaks occurred in
8.1%, and 7.8% developed aneurysms of the distal aorta or continued
FL perfusion with aneurysmal dilation.
Surgery of the descending aorta carries high operative risk. More
recently, surgical aortic arch replacement with antegrade stenting
of the descending thoracic aorta (‘frozen elephant trunk’) may
prove to be a valuable alternative for selected patients.
115
12.2 Follow-up after thoracic aortic
intervention
For patients undergoing TEVAR or surgical thoracic aortic repair, first
follow-up should be performed 1 month after the treatment to
exclude the presence of early complications. Surveillance should
be repeated after 6 months, 12 months, and then yearly. For patients
primarily receiving medical therapy, surveillance should be per-
formed 6 months after initial diagnosis.
12.2.1 Clinical follow-up
Regular clinical follow-up is necessary, more frequently within the
first year after diagnosis or intervention and then on a yearly basis.
Blood pressure should be monitored closely, as .50% of cases
may have resistant hypertension.
549
Symptoms of chronic aortic
disease are rare and non-specific. New-onset hoarseness or dyspha-
gia may develop with progressive enlargement of the aneurysm.
Patients with chronic AD may report symptoms of chronic peripheral
malperfusion syndrome (claudication, abdominal pain). Chest or
back pain may indicate progression of aortic disease up to (contained)
rupture of the aorta.
12.2.2 Imaging after thoracic endovascular aortic repair
For imaging follow-up after TEVAR, CT is the modality of choice. To
avoid exposure to radiation, MRI may be more widely used in the
future, but is not compatible with stainless steel endografts, due
to large artefacts.
11
MRI can be safely performed for surveillance
of nitinol-based stent-grafts;
550
however, it lacks the ability to visu-
alize metallic stent struts and should thus be supplemented by chest
X-ray to detect structural disintegration of the metallic stent
skeleton. TOE, in combination with chest X-ray, may be used in
patients with severe renal dysfunction unable to undergo CT or
MRI.
After TEVAR, imaging of the aorta is recommended after 1 month,
6 months, 12 months, and then yearly. If, after TEVAR for TAA,
patients show a stable course without evidence of endoleak over
24 months, it may be safe to extend imaging intervals to every 2
years; however, clinical follow-up of the patient´s symptom status
and accompanying medical therapy should be maintained at yearly
intervals. Patients with TEVAR for AD should receive yearly
imaging, since the FL of the abdominal aorta is usually patent and
prone to disease progression.
12.2.3 Imaging after thoracic aortic surgery
After aortic surgery, less-strict imaging intervals may be sufficient if a
stable course has been documented over the first year. Imaging
should focus on surgery-related complications (e.g. suture aneur-
ysm) but should also evaluate disease progression in remote parts
of the aorta. After surgery for Type A AD, dissection of the descend-
ing and abdominal aorta usually persists and has to be imaged at inter-
vals similar to those described above.
12.3 Follow-up of patients after
intervention for abdominal aortic
aneurysm
12.3.1 Follow-up after endovascular aortic repair
Computed tomography is the first choice for follow-up imaging after
EVAR; however, it is expensive and exposes patients to ionizing radi-
ation and potentially nephrotoxic contrast agent. Duplex ultrasound,
with or without contrast agents, is specific for the detection of endo-
leaks after EVAR.
311
A recent meta-analysis showed that the sensitiv-
ity and specificity of contrast-enhanced Doppler ultrasonography
(DUS) may be superior to Duplex ultrasound alone to detect Type
2 endoleak, which is caused by retrograde flow from side branches
and is largely a benign condition that rarely requires secondary inter-
vention.
311
Clinically relevant Types 1 and 3 endoleaks, for which
re-intervention is required, may be detected with sufficient accuracy
with Duplex ultrasound alone and the use of contrast agents has not
been shown to be superior in this setting.
311
Magnetic resonance imaging has high diagnostic accuracy for de-
tection of endoleaks after EVAR, but is also expensive and cannot
visualize the metallic stent struts. It should thus be complemented
with plain X-ray for evaluation of the metal stent skeleton. Magnetic
resonance imaging is not compatible with stainless steel endografts
due to the occurrence of artefacts.
12.3.2 Follow-up after open surgery
All patients should be provided with the best current medical treat-
ment protocol. Post-operative surveillance of open aortic repair may
be considered at 5-yearly intervals after open AAA repair to investi-
gate for para-anastomotic aortic aneurysm using colour Doppler
ultrasound or CT imaging. Also, patients with AAA appear to have
a relatively high risk for incisional hernia. In an observational study
using Medicare data, repair of incisional hernia was required in 5.8%
of patients within 4 years.
ESC Guidelines
2919
Recommendations for follow-up and management of
chronic aortic diseases
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