Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
I
C
I
C
Variability of age of onset warrants
screening every 5 years of ‘healthy’ at-risk
relatives until diagnosis (clinical or
molecular) is established or ruled out.
I
C
In familial non-syndromic TAAD,
screening for aneurysm should be
considered, not only in the thoracic
aorta, but also throughout the arterial
tree (including cerebral arteries).
IIa
C
It is recommended to investigate
first-degree relatives (siblings and parents)
of a subject with TAAD to identify a
familial form in which relatives all have a
50% chance of carrying the family
mutation/disease.
Once a familial form of TAAD is highly
suspected, it is recommended to refer the
patient to a geneticist for family
investigation and molecular testing.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
TAAD ¼ thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissection.
8.1.8 Genetics and heritability of abdominal aortic
aneurysm
Since the first report of three brothers with AAA by Clifton in
1977,
447
many studies have reported familial aggregation of AAA
among siblings of patients with that condition.
448
There is a 24% prob-
ability that a monozygotic twin of a person with an AAA will develop
an aneurysm.
449
However, the proportion of patients with AAA who
have first-degree relatives with the disease is usually low in cohort
studies, although it does vary between 1% and 29%.
450
In the minority of families with multiple AAA cases, segregation
analyses have been performed and have led to models of either auto-
somal recessive- or autosomal dominant inheritance.
451
,
452
Despite
reports of these rare families, the development of AAAs is generally
unlikely to be related to a single gene mutation and multiple genetic
factors are implicated. Thus susceptibility genes, rather than causal
gene mutations, are likely to be important, particularly those regulat-
ing inflammatory mediators, tissue proteases, and smooth muscle cell
(SMC) biology. A note of caution should be added in view of the
recent description of familial forms of TAA in which AAAs are
observed. Therefore, if AAA occurs in a young subject with no
overt risk factors and without other affected family members to in-
vestigate, then a more widespread arterial disease should be
screened, notably in the thoracic aorta.
8.2 Aortic diseases associated with
bicuspid aortic valve
Valvular problems associated with BAV are covered in the 2012 ESC
Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease.
312
8.2.1 Epidemiology
8.2.1.1 Bicuspid aortic valve
BAV is the most common congenital cardiac defect, with a prevalence
at birth of 1 – 2%. Males are more often affected than females, with
the ratio ranging from 2:1 to 4:1.
453
–
456
BAV is the result of
fusion of the left coronary cusp (LCC) and right coronary cusp
(RCC) in .70% of patients, of fusion of the RCC with the non-
coronary cusp (NCC) in 10 – 20%, and due to fusion of LCC with
NCC in 5 – 10%.
457
True bicuspid valves and unicommisural valves
are very rare.
8.2.1.2 Ascending aorta growth in bicuspid valves
Aortic dilation, defined as an aorta diameter of .40 mm irrespective
of body surface area,
458
–
460
or of .27.5 mm/m
2
for people of short
stature, is frequently associated with BAV. The risk of development of
aortic dilation in patients with BAV is probably much higher than in
the normal population,
313
but there are no reliable population-based
data on its incidence. There are some indications on racial differences
in the extent of aortic dilation in BAV.
461
Various subtypes of BAV are associated with different forms of
aortic dilation.
462
In patients with an LCC – RCC type BAV, ascending
aorta dilation is common, but aortic root dilation is also seen.
463
In the RCC – NCC type, the aortic root is rarely affected and only dila-
tion of the ascending aorta is seen.
313
Aortic dilation is maximal at the
level of the tubular aorta, with a mean rate of 0.5 mm/year, similar to
that seen in Marfan patients.
316
However, in this population, 50% of
the patients do not present aortic dilation over a 3-year period,
whereas other do,
316
emphasizing the heterogeneity of the popula-
tion of patients with BAV. The aortic arch is rarely affected.
464
Data
to quantify the strength of these associations are not available.
Beyond aortic dilation and aneurysm formation, BAV is a risk factor
for dissection and rupture.
465
Patients with BAV, including those with
a haemodynamically normal valve, have dilated aortic roots and ascend-
ing aortas, compared with age- and sex-matched control subjects.
466
ESC Guidelines
2912
Among adults with BAV and no significant valve disease at baseline, 27%
will require cardiovascular surgery within 20 years.
467
The mean growth
rate of proximal ascending aortic aneurysms in patients with BAV and
aortic stenosis is greater than that seen in patients with tricuspid
valves (1.9 vs. 1.3 mm/year, respectively).
465
In another study in patients
with a normally functioning BAV, an annual growth rate of 0.77 mm was
reported.
468
Average annual changes in the ascending aorta in patients
with BAV may vary from 0.2 to 1.2 mm/year.
316
,
466
,
469
Aortic dilation
rate is higher in the tubular ascending aorta than in the sinuses of Valsalva,
which differs from Marfan syndrome.
316
In patients with BAV who had
untreated aortic dilation at the time of aortic valve replacement, the
15-year rate of aortic surgery or complications was reported to be as
high as 86% when the initial aortic diameter was ,40 mm, 81% with dia-
meters from 40–44 mm, and only 43% for diameters from 45–49 mm,
respectively (P , 0.001).
470
Another study found a low risk of adverse
aortic events after isolated valve replacement in patients with BAV sten-
osis and concomitant mild-to-moderate dilation of the ascending aorta
(40–50 mm) with only 3% of patients requiring proximal aortic surgery
at up to 15 years follow-up.
471
8.2.1.3 Aortic dissection
One study reported a cumulative incidence of 6% of Type A AD in
untreated patients with BAV and aortic dilation over a mean follow-
up of 65 months,
465
but in the current era of early preventive surgery
this is difficult to assess. There are no reliable historical data. The
prevalence of BAV ranges from 2 – 9% in Type A AD and 3% in
Type B AD,
472
both only slightly higher than the prevalence of BAV
in the general population (1 – 2%).
8.2.1.4 Bicuspid aortic valve and coarctation
Only the LCC – RCC type of BAV is associated with aortic coarcta-
tion.
473
,
474
Data on the prevalence of aortic coarctation in BAV are
scarce: one report states 7%.
313
In contrast, among patients with a co-
arctation, 50 – 75% have a BAV (of the LCC – RCC type). In patients
with coarctation and BAV, the risk of developing aortic dilation and
dissection is much higher than in the population with BAV only.
475
,
476
8.2.2 Natural history
Reports on the enlargement of aortic dimensions vary. Mean pro-
gression is reported to be 1 – 2 mm/year,
65
,
469
but faster growth
occurs occasionally. Rapid progression of .5 mm/year and larger
diameters are associated with increased risk of AD or rupture,
with a sharp increase of risk at a diameter .60 mm. A higher gradient
across a stenotic BAV and more severe aortic regurgitation (higher
stroke volume) are reported to be associated with faster increase
in aortic dimensions.
477
In the absence of stenosis or regurgitation,
severe dilation also can occur, especially in young adults.
478
,
479
Data on the increase in aortic dimensions after valve replacement
show that re-operation for an aortic root with a diameter of
40 – 50 mm during the valve replacement is rarely necessary after a
follow-up of .10 years. Dissection is very rare in this group.
471
,
480
8.2.3 Pathophysiology
Notch1 gene mutations are associated with BAV.
481
A high incidence
of familial clustering was observed, compatible with autosomal dom-
inant inheritance with reduced penetrance.
Different orientations of the leaflets (fusion of LCC to RCC or RCC
to NCC) seem to have distinct aetiologies in the embryonic phase.
482
Different types of BAV are associated with different forms of aortic
pathology but the pathophysiology behind this remains unknown.
313
It might be either genetic, with common genetic pathways for aortic
dilation and BAV,
483
,
484
or consecutive to altered aortic flow patterns
in BAV,
485
–
487
or a combination of both.
8.2.4 Diagnosis
8.2.4.1 Clinical presentation
BAV, with stenosis or regurgitation, can give rise to complaints and
clinical signs (heart murmurs) that can be detected on clinical exam-
ination. A dilating aorta is rarely symptomatic. Chronic chest, neck,
and back pain can be atypical signs of a dilated aorta. Dyspnoea, in-
spiratory stridor, and recurrent airway infection may indicate com-
pression of major airways. Hoarseness may indicate compression
of the laryngeal nerve. The first clinical manifestation of untreated
progressive aortic dilation associated with BAV is often aortic
rupture or AD. A small subset of patients with BAV (,15%),
almost exclusively young men, presents predominantly with aortic
root dilation without substantial valvular stenosis or regurgitation,
with very few or no clinical symptoms. These patients are at risk,
but are very difficult to identify if not detected by means of screening.
8.2.4.2 Imaging
There are no specific comments regarding imaging of the aorta in this
setting.
8.2.4.3 Screening in relatives
Because of BAV’s strong familial association,
453
,
483
,
488
screening of
first-degree relatives may be considered. There are no data about
the effectiveness (i.e. number of patients to screen to diagnose one
otherwise undetected patient) or cost-effectiveness of a screening
programme.
8.2.4.4 Follow-up
In every newly diagnosed patient with BAV, the aortic root and
ascending aorta should be visualized with TTE alone or associated
with another imaging modality, preferably MRI. If TTE is feasible,
there is a good correlation between MRI and TTE and, when the
aorta is not dilated, annual follow-up can be done with TTE, with
intervals depending on rate of enlargement and/or family history. In
cases of an increase in diameter .3 mm/year or a diameter
.45 mm measured on TTE, a measurement with another imaging
modality (MRI or CT) is indicated. From a diameter of 45 mm,
annual follow-up of the ascending aorta is advised. If TTE cannot re-
liably visualize the ascending aorta, annual imaging with MRI (or CT if
MRI is not possible) is indicated.
489
8.2.5 Treatment
Although there are no studies that provide evidence that medical
treatment of a dilated aorta has any effect on the enlargement
of the ascending aorta or aortic root in BAV, it is common clinical
practice to advise beta-blocker therapy when the aorta is dilated.
The indication for surgical treatment of aortic dilation in BAV is
similar to that for other causes of dilation, except for Marfan syn-
drome. When surgery is indicated for BAV, stenosis or regurgitation,
aortic root replacement should be considered if the root is larger
than 45 mm in diameter,
470
because of elevated risk of aortic dilation
necessitating intervention (or dissection or rupture) in the years
following surgery.
ESC Guidelines
2913
8.2.6 Prognosis
The risk of dissection and rupture increases with the diameter of the
aorta, with a sharp increase at a diameter of 60 mm. When treated
according to guidelines, the prognosis is favourable—much better
than that of Marfan syndrome – and similar to that of an age-matched
normal population.
313
,
485
Recommendations for the management of aortic root
dilation in patients with bicuspid aortic valve
Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
Patients with known BAV should
undergo an initial TTE to assess the
diameters of the aortic root and
ascending aorta.
I
C
Cardiac MRI or CT is indicated in
patients with BAV when the
morphology of the aortic root and the
ascending aorta cannot be accurately
assessed by TTE.
I
C
Serial measurement of the aortic root
and ascending aorta is indicated in
every patient with BAV, with an
interval depending on aortic size,
increase in size and family history
I
C
I
C
In the case of aortic diameter >50 mm
or an increase >3 mm/year measured
by echocardiography, confirmation of
the measurement is indicated, using
another imaging modality (CT or
MRI).
I
C
In cases of BAV, surgery of the
ascending aorta is indicated in case of:
•
aortic root or
ascending aortic
diameter >55 mm.
•
aortic root or
ascending aortic
diameter >50 mm in the
presence of other risk
factors.
c
•
aortic root or
ascending aortic
diameter >45 mm when
surgical aortic valve
replacement is
scheduled.
I
C
Beta-blockers may be considered in
patients with BAV and dilated aortic
root >40 mm.
IIb
C
Because of familial occurrence,
screening of first-degree relatives
should be considered.
IIa
C
In patients with any elastopathy or
BAV with dilated aortic root (>40
mm), isometric exercise with a high
static load (e.g. weightlifting) is not
indicated and should be discouraged.
III
C
In the case of a diameter of the aortic
root or the ascending aorta >45 mm or
an increase >3 mm/year measured by
echocardiography, annual measurement
of aortic diameter is indicated.
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
c
Coarctation of the aorta, systemic hypertension, family history of dissection, or
increase in aortic diameter .3 mm/year (on repeated measurements using the
same imaging technique, measured at the same aortic level, with side-by-side
comparison and confirmed by another technique).
BAV ¼ bicuspid aortic valve; CT ¼ computed tomography; MRI ¼ magnetic
resonance imaging; TTE ¼ transthoracic echocardiography.
8.3 Coarctation of the aorta
This topic is discussed extensively in the 2010 ESC Guidelines on the
management of grown-up congenital heart disease.
424
8.3.1 Background
Coarctation of the aorta is considered to be a complex disease of the
vasculature and not only as a circumscript narrowing of the aorta. It
occurs as a discrete stenosis or as a long, hypoplastic aortic segment.
Coarctation of the aorta is typically located at the area of ductus arter-
iosus insertion, and occurs ectopically (ascending, descending, or ab-
dominal aorta) in rare cases. Coarctation of the aorta accounts for 5 –
8% of all congenital heart defects. The prevalence of isolated forms is
3 per 10 000 live births.
8.3.2 Diagnostic work-up
Clinical features include upper body systolic hypertension, lower body
hypotension, a blood pressure gradient between the upper and lower
extremities (.20 mm Hg indicates significant coarctation of the aorta),
radiofemoral pulse delay, and palpable collaterals. Echocardiography
provides information regarding site, structure, and extent of coarcta-
tion of the aorta, left ventricular function and hypertrophy, associated
cardiac abnormalities, and aortic and supra-aortic vessel diameters.
Doppler gradients are not useful for quantification, neither in native
nor in post-operative coarctation. MRI and CT are the preferred non-
invasive techniques to evaluate the entire aorta in adults. Both depict
site, extent, and degree of the aortic narrowing, the aortic arch, the
pre- and post-stenotic aorta, and collaterals. Both methods detect
complications such as aneurysms, re-stenosis, or residual stenosis.
Cardiac catheterization with manometry (a peak-to-peak gradient
.20 mm Hg indicates a haemodynamically significant coarctation of
the aorta in the absence of well-developed collaterals), and angiography
are still the ‘gold standard’ for evaluation of this condition at many
centres before and after operative or interventional treatment.
8.3.3 Surgical or catheter interventional treatment
In native coarctation of the aorta with appropriate anatomy, stenting
has become the treatment of first choice in adults in many centres.
Recommendations on interventions in coarctation of the
aorta
Recommendations Class
a
Level
b
I
Independent of the pressure gradient, hyper-
tensive patients with >50% aortic narrowing
relative to the aortic diameter at the diaphragm
level (on MRI, CT, or invasive angiography)
should be considered for intervention.
IIa
C
C
In all patients with a non-invasive pressure
difference >20 mm Hg between upper and
lower limbs, regardless of symptoms but with
upper limb hypertension (>140/90 mm Hg in
adults), abnormal blood pressure response
during exercise, or significant left ventricular
hypertrophy, an intervention is indicated.
Independent of the pressure gradient and pres-
ence of hypertension, patients with >50% aortic
narrowing relative to the aortic diameter at the
diaphragm level (on MRI, CT, or invasive angi-
ography) may be considered for intervention.
IIb
C
a
Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
CT ¼ computed tomography; MRI ¼ magnetic resonance imaging.
ESC Guidelines
2914
The question of whether to use covered or non-covered stents
remains unresolved. Notably, despite intervention, antihypertensive
drugs may still be necessary to control hypertension.
9. Atherosclerotic lesions of the
aorta
9.1 Thromboembolic aortic disease
As a result of the atherosclerotic process, aortic plaques consist of
the accumulation of lipids in the intima-media layer of the aorta.
490
Secondary inflammation, fibrous tissue deposition, and surface ero-
sions with subsequent appearance of thrombus may cause either
thrombotic (thromboembolic) or atherosclerotic (cholesterol
crystal) embolism.
491
Thromboemboli are usually large, and commonly occlude
medium-to-large arteries, causing stroke, transient ischaemic
attack, renal infarct, and peripheral thromboembolism. Cholesterol
crystal emboli tend to occlude small arteries and arterioles, and
may cause the ‘blue-toe’ syndrome, new or worsening renal insuffi-
ciency, and mesenteric ischaemia.
9.1.1 Epidemiology
Risk factors are similar to those for atherosclerosis in other vascular
beds, including age, sex, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperchol-
esterolaemia, sedentary lifestyle, tobacco smoking, and inflammation.
In the Offspring Framingham Heart Study, aortic plaque was identi-
fied by MRI in 46% of normotensive individuals, with a greater preva-
lence in women. Hypertension was associated with greater aortic
plaque burden. An even greater plaque burden was present in sub-
jects with clinical cardiovascular disease.
492
Aortic plaques are associated with cerebrovascular and peripheral
embolic events. The association between cerebrovascular and
embolic events is derived from autopsy studies,
493
and studies in
patients with non-fatal cerebrovascular or peripheral vascular
events,
494
as well as those in high-risk patients referred for TOE
and intraoperative ultrasound.
495
,
496
In the Stroke Prevention in
Atrial Fibrillation study, patients with complex aortic plaque
(defined by plaques with mobile thrombi or ulcerations or a thickness
≥4 mm by TOE) had a risk of stroke four times as great compared
with plaque-free patients.
497
In The French Study of Aortic Plaques
in Stroke,
498
aortic plaques
≥4 mm were independent predictors
of recurrent brain infarction (RR ¼ 3.8) and any vascular events
(RR ¼ 3.5). The prevalence of severe aortic arch atheroma among
patients with acute ischaemic stroke is .20%, similar to atrial fibril-
lation and carotid atherosclerosis.
499
Additionally, most of the
studies noted that progression of atheroma was associated with
more vascular events.
500
Embolic events can also be induced by interventions including
cardiac catheterization, intra-aortic balloon counter-pulsation, and
cardiac surgery. For cardiac catheterization, the overall risk of
stroke is low. In a recent meta-analysis, stroke rates tended to be
lower with the radial vs. femoral approach without reaching statistical
significance (0.1 vs. 0.5%, respectively; P ¼ 0.22).
501
Atherosclerosis
of the ascending aorta is a major risk factor for stroke after cardiac
surgery. The level of risk depends on the presence, location, and
extent of disease when the ascending aorta is surgically manipulated.
In a study of 921 patients undergoing cardiac surgery, the incidences
of stroke in patients with and without atherosclerotic disease of the
ascending aorta were 8.7% and 1.8%, respectively (P , 0.0001).
502
Intraoperative (epiaortic ultrasonography) or pre-operative diag-
nosis and surgical techniques such as intra-aortic filters, off-pump
coronary artery bypass, single aortic clamp or no clamping, and
‘no-touch’ off-pump coronary artery bypass may prevent embolic
events.
503
Nowadays, transcatheter aortic valve implantation is
mostly proposed in the elderly with multiple comorbidities, and
these patients are at high risk for aortic plaques, which are in part
responsible for procedure-related stroke, as highlighted by lower
stroke rates when the aortic catheterization is avoided by the trans-
apical approach.
504
9.1.2 Diagnosis
Aortic atheroma can be subdivided in small, moderate, and severe
aortic atherosclerosis, or even semi-quantitatively into four grades
(Web Table
3
).
505
,
506
TTE offers good imaging of the aortic root and proximal
ascending aorta. TOE is a safe and reproducible method of asses-
sing aortic atheromas.
507
Multiplanar real-time 3D TOE may offer
further advantages. Epiaortic ultrasonography (2D or 3D)
508
can
offer valuable data during the intraoperative setting. Multislice
computed tomography can offer excellent imaging of aortic ather-
omas and gives valuable data on anatomy and calcifications. Mag-
netic resonance imaging can give details on the composition of
plaques. The limitations of each technique are detailed in
section 4.
9.1.3 Therapy
9.1.3.1 Antithrombotics (antiplatelets vs. vitamin K antagonists)
Because of the thromboembolic risk, antiplatelet therapy or anticoa-
gulation is considered.
498
However, studies comparing both options
are scarce and mostly small and non-randomized.
482
Warfarin has
been used for primary or secondary prophylaxis in patients with
aortic plaque. In an observational study including 129 patients,
509
a
lower incidence of vascular and fatal events was found in the case
of complex plaques in patients on vitamin K antagonist vs. antiplatelet
therapy (aspirin or ticlopidine). Other studies also reported benefi-
cial results.
510
,
511
Nevertheless, other groups reported no benefit
with warfarin use: in a study of 519 patients with severe aortic
plaque the OR for embolic events was 0.7 (95% CI 0.4 – 1.2) for war-
farin and 1.4 (95% CI 0.8 – 2.4) for antiplatelet agents.
512
In the Patent
Foramen Ovale in Cryptogenic Stroke study (PICSS), based on the
Warfarin-Aspirin Recurrent Stroke Study (WARSS),
513
event rates
for the entire population (n ¼ 516, of whom 337 had aortic
plaques) were similar in the warfarin and aspirin groups (16.4 vs.
15.8%; P ¼ 0.43) and no correlation was observed between warfarin
treatment and large plaques on the risk of events (HR 0.42; 95% CI
0.12 – 1.47).
More data are needed to allow for better selection of patients and
to determine firm recommendations. The promising Aortic Arch
Related Cerebral Hazard (ARCH) trial, comparing warfarin
ESC Guidelines
2915
(target international normalized ratio 2 – 3) with aspirin plus clopi-
dogrel, has been prematurely stopped because of a lack of power for
a definite result. In the Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation III
study
514
the co-existence of aortic plaque in patients with atrial fib-
rillation dramatically increased the risk of embolic events. Aortic
plaque is considered as ‘vascular disease’ and increases, by one
point, the CHA
2
DS
2
-VASc score used to assess the stroke risk in
atrial fibrillation.
515
9.1.3.2 Lipid-lowering agents
No randomized trials are available to support the use of statins for
patients with stroke caused by atheroembolism. In a small series of
patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia who were studied
with TOE, pravastatin resulted in progression in 19% and regression
in 38% over 2 years.
516
Statin use results in regression of aortic ath-
eroma burden as assessed by MRI,
517
or attenuation of inflammation
as assessed by PET.
518
More research is required to clarify the value of
statins and the risk of stroke in patients with large aortic plaques. In a
retrospective study of 519 patients with severe aortic plaque, only
statin treatment was associated with a 70% lower risk of events.
512
9.1.3.3 Surgical and interventional approach
There are limited data—mainly from case studies—and no clear evi-
dence to recommend prophylactic endarterectomy or aortic arch
stenting for prevention of stroke. Surgery for atherothrombotic
disease in the aortic arch is of a high-risk nature and cannot be recom-
mended.
519
Recommendations on management of aortic plaque
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