nia or severe depression, because they can be
aroused by vigorous stimulation to respond to
simple stimuli.
Coma, from the Greek ‘‘deep sleep or
trance,’’ is a state of unresponsiveness in which
the patient lies with eyes closed and cannot be
aroused to respond appropriately to stimuli
even with vigorous stimulation. The patient may
grimace in response to painful stimuli and limbs
may demonstrate stereotyped withdrawal re-
sponses, but the patient does not make local-
izingresponsesordiscretedefensivemovements.
As coma deepens, the responsiveness of the
patient, even to painful stimuli, may diminish or
disappear. However, it is difficult to equate the
lack of motor responses to the depth of the coma,
as the neural structures that regulate motor re-
sponses differ from those that regulate con-
sciousness, and they may be differentially im-
paired by specific brain disorders.
The locked-in syndrome describes a state in
which the patient is de-efferented, resulting in
paralysis of all four limbs and the lower cranial
nerves. This condition has been recognized at
least as far back as the 19th century, but its dis-
tinctive name was applied in the first edition of
this monograph (1966), reflecting the implica-
tions of this condition for the diagnosis of coma
and for the specialized care such patients re-
quire. Although not unconscious, locked-in pa-
tients are unable to respond to most stimuli. A
high level of clinical suspicion is required on
the part of the examiner to distinguish a locked-
in patient from one who is comatose. The most
common cause is a lesion of the base and teg-
mentum of the midpons that interrupts des-
cending cortical control of motor functions.
Such patients usually retain control of vertical
eye movements and eyelid opening, which can
be used to verify their responsiveness. They
may be taught to respond to the examiner by
using eye blinks as a code. Rare patients with
subacute motor neuropathy, such as Guillain-
Barre´ syndrome, also may become completely
de-efferented, but there is a history of sub-
acute paralysis. In both instances, electro-
encephalographic (EEG) examination discloses
a reactive posterior alpha rhythm
10
(see EEG
section, page 82).
It is important to identify locked-in patients
so that they may be treated appropriately by
the medical and nursing staff. At the bedside,
discussion should be with the patient, not, as
with an unconscious individual, about the pa-
tient. Patients with large midpontine lesions of-
ten are awake most of the time, with greatly
diminished sleep on physiologic recordings.
11
They may suffer greatly if they are treated by
hospital staff as if they are nonresponsive.
As the above definitions imply, each of these
conditions includes a fairly wide range of be-
havioral responsiveness, and there may be some
overlap among them. Therefore, it is generally
best to describe a patient by indicating what
stimuli do or do not result in responses and the
kinds of responses that are seen, rather than
using less precise terms.
Subacute or Chronic Alterations
of Consciousness
Dementia defines an enduring and often pro-
gressive decline in mental processes owing to
an organic process not usually accompanied
by a reduction in arousal. Conventionally, the
term implies a diffuse or disseminated reduc-
tion in cognitive functions rather than the im-
pairment of a single psychologic activity such
as language. DSM-IV defines dementia as fol-
lows: ‘‘A. The development of multiple cogni-
tive defects manifested by both: (1) Memory
impairment (impaired ability to learn new in-
formation or to recall previously learned infor-
mation); (2) One (or more) of the following
cognitive disturbances: aphasia (language dis-
turbance), apraxia (impaired ability to carry out
motor activities despite intact motor function),
agnosia (failure to recognize or identify objects
despite intact sensory function), disturbance in
executive function (i.e., planning, organization,
sequencing, abstracting).’’
The reader will recognize this definition as
an arbitrary restriction. Usually, the term de-
mentia is applied to the effects of primary dis-
orders of the cerebral hemispheres, such as
degenerative conditions, traumatic injuries,
and neoplasms. Occasionally, dementia can be
Pathophysiology of Signs and Symptoms of Coma
7
at least partially reversible, such as when it ac-
companies thyroid or vitamin B
12
deficiency
or results from a reversible communicating hy-
drocephalus; more often, however, the term
applies to chronic conditions carrying limited
hopes for improvement.
Patients with dementia are usually awake
and alert, but as the dementia worsens, may
become less responsive and eventually evolve
into a vegetative state (see below). Patients with
dementia are at significantly increased risk of
developing delirium when they become medi-
cally ill or develop comorbid brain disease.
Hypersomnia refers to a state characterized
by excessive but normal-appearing sleep from
which the subject readily, even if briefly, awak-
ens when stimulated. Many patients with either
acute or chronic alterations of consciousness
sleep excessively. However, when awakened,
consciousness is clearly clouded. In the truly
hypersomniac patient, sleep appears normal
and cognitive functions are normal when pa-
tients are awakened. Hypersomnia results from
hypothalamic dysfunction, as indicated later in
this chapter.
12
Abulia (from the Greek for ‘‘lack of will’’) is
an apathetic state in which the patient responds
slowly if at all to verbal stimuli and generally
does not initiate conversation or activity. When
sufficiently stimulated, however, cognitive func-
tions may be normal. Unlike hypersomnia, the
patient usually appears fully awake. Abulia is
usually associated with bilateral frontal lobe dis-
ease and, when severe, may evolve into akinetic
mutism.
Akinetic mutism describes a condition of
silent, alert-appearing immobility that charac-
terizes certain subacute or chronic states of
altered consciousness in which sleep-wake cy-
cles have returned, but externally obtainable
evidence for mental activity remains almost en-
tirely absent and spontaneous motor activity is
lacking. Such patients generally have lesions
including the hypothalamus and adjacent basal
forebrain.
The minimally conscious state (MCS) is a con-
cept that was recently developed by the Aspen
Workgroup, a consortium of neurologists, neu-
rosurgeons, neuropsychologists, and rehabilita-
tion specialists.
13
MCS identifies a condition of
severely impaired consciousness in which mini-
mal but definite behavioral evidence of self
(this can only be assessed verbally, of course)
or environmental awareness is demonstrated.
Like the vegetative state, MCS often exists as
a transitional state arising during recovery from
coma or worsening of progressive neurologic
disease. In some patients, however, it may be
an essentially permanent condition. For a de-
tailed discussion of the clinical criteria for the
diagnosis of the minimally conscious state, see
Chapter 9.
The vegetative state (VS) denotes the recov-
ery of crude cycling of arousal states heralded
by the appearance of ‘‘eyes-open’’ periods in
an unresponsive patient. Very few surviving pa-
tients with severe forebrain damage remain in
eyes-closed coma for more than 10 to 30 days.
In most patients, vegetative behavior usually
replaces coma by that time. Patients in the veg-
etative state, like comatose patients, show no evi-
dence of awareness of self or their environment.
Unlike brain death, in which the cerebral hemi-
spheres and the brainstem both undergo over-
whelming functional impairment, patients in
vegetative states retain brainstem regulation of
cardiopulmonary function and visceral autono-
mic regulation. Although the original term per-
sistent vegetative state (PVS) was not associated
with a specific time, the use of PVS is now com-
monly reserved for patients remaining in a veg-
etative state for at least 30 days. The American
Neurological Association advises that PVS be
applied only to patients in the state for 1 month.
Some patients recover from PVS (see Chapter
9). Other terms in the literature designating the
vegetative state include coma vigil and the apa-
llic state.
Brain death is defined as the irreversible
loss of all functions of the entire brain,
14
such
that the body is unable to maintain respiratory
and cardiovascular homeostasis. Although vig-
orous supportive care may keep the body pro-
cesses going for some time, particularly in an
Table 1–2 Terms Used to Describe
Disorders of Consciousness
Acute
Subacute or Chronic
Clouding
Dementia
Delirium
Hypersomnia
Obtundation
Abulic
Stupor
Akinetic mutism
Coma
Minimal consciousness
Locked in (not coma;
see text)
Vegetative
Brain death
8
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
otherwise healthy young person, the loss of
brain function eventually results in failure of the
systemic circulation within a few days or, rarely,
after several weeks. That the brain has been
dead for some time prior to the cessation of the
heartbeat is attested to by the fact that the or-
gan in such cases is usually autolyzed (respirator
brain) when examined postmortem.
15
Because
function of the cerebral hemispheres depends
on the brainstem (see ascending arousal system
section below), and because cerebral hemi-
sphere function is extremely difficult to assess
when the brainstem is nonfunctioning, physi-
cians in the United Kingdom have developed
the concept of brainstem death,
16
defined as
‘‘irreversible loss of the capacity for conscious-
ness, combined with irreversible loss of the
capacity to breathe.’’ The criteria for the diag-
nosis of brain death and brainstem death are al-
most identical. They are detailed in Chapter 8.
Acute alterations of consciousness are dis-
cussed in Chapters 2 through 5. Subacute and
chronic alterations of consciousness are discus-
sed in Chapter 9.
APPROACH TO THE DIAGNOSIS
OF THE COMATOSE PATIENT
Determining the cause of an acutely depressed
level of consciousness is a difficult clinical
challenge. The clinician must determine rapidly
whether the cause of the impairment is struc-
tural or metabolic, and what treatments must
be instituted to save the life of the patient. Since
the last edition of this monograph in 1980,
there has been a revolution in brain imaging.
Computed tomography (CT) scans and some-
times magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are
immediately available in the emergency room
to evaluate acutely ill patients. In appropriate
clinical circumstances, if the initial examina-
tion suggests structural brain damage, a scan
may identify the cause of the alteration of con-
sciousness and dictate the therapy. However,
when the scan does not give the cause, there is
no simple solution; usually no single laboratory
test or screening procedure will sift out the
critical initial diagnostic categories as effectively
as a careful clinical evaluation.
If the cause of coma is structural, it generally
is due to a focal injury along the course of the
neural pathways that generate and maintain a
normal waking brain. Therefore, the clinical
diagnosis of structural coma depends on the
recognition of the signs of injury to structures
that accompany the arousal pathways through
the brain. Structural processes that impair the
function of the arousal system fall into two ca-
tegories: (1) supratentorial mass lesions, which
may compress deep diencephalic structures and
hence impair the function of both hemispheres,
and (2) infratentorial mass or destructive le-
sions, which directly damage the arousal system
at its source in the upper brainstem. The re-
mainder of Chapter 1 will systematically exam-
ine the major arousal systems in the brain and
the physiology and pathophysiology of consci-
ousness. Chapter 2 addresses examination of the
patient with a disturbance of consciousness, par-
ticularly those components of the examination
that assay the function of the arousal systems
and the major sensory, motor, and autonomic
systems that accompany them. Once the exam-
ination is completed, the examiner should be
able to determine whether the source of the
impairment of consciousness is caused by a
structural lesion (Chapters 3 and 4) or a diffuse
and therefore presumably metabolic process
(Chapter 5).
Although it is important to question family
members or attendants who may have details of
the history, including emergency medical per-
sonnel who bring the patient into the emergency
department, the history for comatose patients
is often scant or absent. The neurologic exam-
ination of a patient with impaired conscious-
ness, fortunately, is brief, because the patient
cannot detect sensory stimuli or provide vol-
untary motor responses. The key components
of the examination, which can be completed by
a skillful physician in just a few minutes, in-
clude (1) the level of consciousness of the pa-
tient, (2) the pattern of breathing, (3) the size
and reactivity of the pupils, (4) the eye move-
ments and oculovestibular responses, and (5)
the skeletal motor responses. From this infor-
mation, the examiner must be able to recon-
struct the type of the lesion and move swiftly
to lifesaving measures. Before reviewing the
components of the coma examination in detail,
however, it is necessary to understand the ba-
sic pathways in the brain that sustain wakeful,
conscious behavior. Only from this perspective
is it possible to understand how the compo-
nents of the coma examination test pathways
that are intertwined with those that maintain
consciousness.
Pathophysiology of Signs and Symptoms of Coma
9
Box 1–1 Constantin von Economo and the Discovery of
Intrinsic Wake and Sleep Systems in the Brain
Baron Constantin von Economo von San Serff was born in 1876, the son of Greek
parentage. He was brought up in Austrian Trieste, studied medicine in Vienna,
and in 1906 took a post in the Psychiatric Clinic under Professor Julius von
Wagner-Jauregg. In 1916 during World War I, he began seeing cases of a new and
previously unrecorded type of encephalitis and published his first report of this
illness in 1917. Although subsequent accounts have often confused this illness
with the epidemic of influenza that swept through Europe and then the rest of the
world during World War I, von Economo was quite clear that encephalitis le-
thargica was not associated with respiratory symptoms, and that its appearance
preceded the onset of the latter epidemic. Von Economo continued to write and
lecture about this experience for the remainder of his life, until his premature
death in 1931 from heart disease.
Based on his clinical observations, von Economo proposed a dual center the-
ory for regulation of sleep and wakefulness: a waking influence arising from the
upper brainstem and passing through the gray matter surrounding the cerebral
aqueduct and the posterior third ventricle; and a rostral hypothalamic sleep-
promoting area. These observations became the basis for lesion studies done by
Ranson in 1939,
20
by Nauta in 1946,
21
and by Swett and Hobson in 1968,
22
in
which they showed that the posterior lateral hypothalamic lesions in monkeys,
rats, and cats could reproduce the prolonged sleepiness that von Economo had
observed. The rostral hypothalamic sleep-promoting area was confirmed exper-
imentally in rats by Nauta in 1946
21
and in cats by Sterman and Clemente in the
1960s.
23
Interestingly, von Economo also identified a third clinical syndrome, which
appeared some months after the acute encephalitis in some patients who had
Figure B1–1A. A photograph of Baron Constantin von Economo, and excerpts from the title
page of his lecture on the localization of sleep and wake promoting systems in the brain. (From von
Economo,
19
with permission.)
(continued)
10
PHYSIOLOGY AND
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF
CONSCIOUSNESS AND COMA
The Ascending Arousal System
In the late 19th century, the great British neu-
rologist John Hughlings-Jackson
17
proposed that
consciousness was the sum total of the activity
in human cerebral hemispheres. A corollary was
that consciousness could only be eliminated by
lesions that simultaneously damaged both cere-
bral hemispheres. However, several clinical ob-
servations challenged this view. As early as 1890,
Mauthner
18
reported that stupor in patients
with Wernicke’s encephalopathy was associated
with lesions involving the gray matter surround-
ing the cerebral aqueduct and the caudal part of
posterior hypothalamic lesions, as they were beginning to recover. These indi-
viduals would develop episodes of sleep attacks during which they had an over-
whelming need to sleep. He noted that they also had attacks of cataplexy in which
they lost all muscle tone, often when excited emotionally. Von Economo noted
accurately that these symptoms were similar to the rare condition previously
identified by Gelinaux as narcolepsy. S.A. Kinnier Wilson described a cohort of
similar patients in London in 1928.
24
He also noted that they had developed
symptoms of narcolepsy after recovering from encephalitis lethargica with pos-
terior hypothalamic lesions. Wilson even described examining a patient in his
office, with the young house officer McDonald Critchley, and that the patient
indeed had atonic paralysis, with loss of tendon reflexes and an extensor plantar
response during the attack.
Von Economo’s theory was highly influential during this period, and a great
deal of what was subsequently learned about the organization of brain systems
controlling sleep and wakefulness owes its origins to his careful clinicopath-
ologic observations and his imaginative and far-reaching vision about brain
organization.
Figure B1–1B. Von Economo’s original drawing of the localization of the lesions in the brain that
caused excessive sleepiness and insomnia. (Modified from von Economo,
19
with permission.)
Pathophysiology of Signs and Symptoms of Coma
11
the third ventricle. The nascent field of neuro-
surgery also began to contribute cases in which
loss of consciousness was associated with lesions
confined to the upper brainstem or caudal di-
encephalon. However, the most convincing
body of evidence was assembled by Baron Con-
stantin von Economo,
19
a Viennese neurologist
who recorded his observations during an epide-
mic of a unique disorder, encephalitis lethargica,
that occurred in the years surrounding World
War I. Most victims of encephalitis lethargica
were very sleepy, spending 20 or more hours
per day asleep, and awakening only briefly to
eat. When awakened, they could interact in a
relatively unimpaired fashion with the examiner,
but soon fell asleep if not continuously stimu-
lated. Many of these patients suffered from
oculomotor abnormalities, and when they died,
they were found to have lesions involving the
paramedian reticular formation of the midbrain
at the junction with the diencephalon. Other
patients during the same epidemic developed
prolonged wakefulness, sleeping at most a few
hours per day. Movement disorders were also
common. Von Economo identified the causa-
tive lesion in the gray matter surrounding the
anterior part of the third ventricle in the hypo-
thalamus and extending laterally into the basal
ganglia at that level.
Von Economo suggested that there was spe-
cific brainstem circuitry that causes arousal or
wakefulness of the forebrain, and that the hy-
pothalamus contains circuitry for inhibiting this
system to induce sleep. However, it was difficult
to test these deductions because naturally oc-
curring lesions in patients, or experimental
lesions in animals that damaged the brainstem,
almost invariably destroyed important sensory
and motor pathways that complicated the inter-
pretation of the results. As long as the only tool
for assessing activity of the cerebral hemispheres
remained the clinical examination, this problem
could not be resolved.
In 1929, Hans Berger, a Swiss psychiatrist,
reported a technologic innovation, the electro-
encephalogram (EEG), which he developed to
assess the cortical function of his psychiatric
patients with various types of functional impair-
ment of responsiveness.
25
He noted that the
waveform pattern that he recorded from the
scalps of his patients was generally sinusoidal,
and that the amplitude and frequency of the
waves in the EEG correlated closely with the Dostları ilə paylaş: |