following day he merely shuffled about and res-
Figure 1–9. Lesions of the brainstem may be very
large without causing coma if they do not involve the
ascending arousal system bilaterally. (A) Even an
extensive infarction at the mesopontine level that
does not include the dorsolateral pons on one side
and leaves intact the paramedian midbrain can result
in preservation of consciousness. (B) Lesions at
a low pontine and medullary level, even if they in-
volve a hemorrhage, do not impair consciousness.
(Patient 1–2, p. 33)
30
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
ponded in monosyllables. The next day (13 days
after the anoxia) he became incontinent and
unable to walk, swallow, or chew. He neither spoke
to nor recognized his family. He was admitted to a
private psychiatric hospital with the diagnosis of
depression. Deterioration continued, and 28 days
after the initial anoxia he was readmitted to the
hospital. His blood pressure was 170/100 mm Hg,
pulse 100, respirations 24, and temperature 1018F.
There were coarse rales at both lung bases. He per-
spired profusely and constantly. He did not re-
spond to pain, but would open his eyes momen-
tarily to loud sounds. His extremities were flexed
and rigid, his deep tendon reflexes were hyperac-
tive, and his plantar responses extensor. Laboratory
studies, including examination of the spinal fluid,
were normal. He died 3 days later.
An autopsy examination showed diffuse bron-
chopneumonia. The brain was grossly normal.
There was no cerebral swelling. Coronal sections
appeared normal with no evidence of pallidal ne-
crosis. Histologically, neurons in the motor cortex,
hippocampus, cerebellum, and occipital lobes ap-
peared generally well preserved, although a few
sections showed minimal cytodegenerative chan-
ges and reduction of neurons. There was occasional
perivascular lymphocytic infiltration. Pathologic
changes were not present in blood vessels, nor was
there any interstitial edema. The striking alteration
was diffuse demyelination involving all lobes of the
cerebral hemispheres and sparing only the arcuate
fibers (the immediately subcortical portion of the
cerebral white matter). Axons were also reduced in
number but were better preserved than was the
myelin. Oligodendroglia were preserved in demye-
linated areas. Reactive astrocytes were consider-
ably increased. The brainstem and cerebellum were
histologically intact. The condition of delayed post-
anoxic cerebral demyelination observed in this pa-
tient is discussed at greater length in Chapter 5.
Another major class of patients with bilateral
hemispheric damage causing coma is of those
Figure 1–10. Hypoxia typically causes more severe damage to large pyramidal cells in the cerebral cortex and hippo-
campus compared to surrounding structures. (A) shows a low magnification view of the cerebral cortex illustrating pseu-
dolaminar necrosis (arrow), which parallels the pial surface. At higher magnification (B), the area of necrosis involves
layers II to V of the cerebral cortex, which contains the large pyramidal cells (region between the two arrows). (C) At high
magnification, surviving neurons are pyknotic and eosinophilic, indicating hypoxic injury. Scale in A ¼ 8 mm, B ¼ 0.6 mm,
and C ¼ 15 micrometers.
Pathophysiology of Signs and Symptoms of Coma
31
who suffer from brain trauma.
104
These cases
usually do not present a diagnostic dilemma, as
there is usually history or external evidence of
trauma to suggest the cause of the impaired con-
sciousness.
DIENCEPHALIC INJURY
The relay nuclei of the thalamus provide the
largest ascending source of input to the cere-
bral cortex. As a result, it is no exaggeration to
say that virtually any deficit due to injury of a
discrete cortical area can be mimicked by in-
jury to its thalamic relay nucleus. Hence, tha-
lamic lesions that are sufficiently extensive can
produce the same result as bilateral cortical
injury. The most common cause of such lesions
is the ‘‘tip of the basilar’’ syndrome, in which
vascular occlusion of the perforating arteries
that arise from the basilar apex or the first
segment of the posterior cerebral arteries
can produce bilateral thalamic infarction.
105
Figure 1–11. A series of drawings
illustrating levels through the brain-
stem at which lesions caused im-
pairment of consciousness. For each
case, the extent of the injury at each
level was plotted, and the colors
indicate the number of cases that
involved injury to that area. The
overlay illustrates the importance
of damage to the dorsolateral pon-
tine tegmentum or the paramedian
midbrain in causing coma. (From
Parvizi and Damasio,
110
with
permission.)
32
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
However, careful examination of the MRI scans
of such patients, or their brains postmortem,
usually shows some damage as well to the para-
median midbrain reticular formation and often
in the posterior hypothalamus. Other causes of
primarily thalamic damage include thalamic
hemorrhage, local infiltrating tumors, and rare
cases of diencephalic inflammatory lesions (e.g.,
Behc¸et’s syndrome).
106,107
Another example of severe thalamic injury
causing coma was reported by Kinney and col-
leagues
108
in the brain of Karen Anne Quinlan,
a famous medicolegal case of a woman who
remained in a persistent vegetative state (Chap-
ter 9) for many years after a hypoxic brain in-
jury. Examination of her brain at the time of
death disclosed unexpectedly widespread tha-
lamic neuronal loss. However, there was also
extensive damage to other brain areas, includ-
ing the cerebral cortex, so that the thalamic
damage alone may not have caused the clinical
loss of consciousness. On the other hand, tha-
lamic injury is frequently found in patients with
brain injuries who eventually enter a persistent
vegetative state (Chapter 9).
104
Ischemic lesions of the hypothalamus are
rare, because the hypothalamus is literally en-
circled by the main vessels of the circle of Willis
and is fed by local penetrating vessels from all
the major arteries. However, the location of the
hypothalamus above the pituitary gland results
in localized hypothalamic damage in cases of
pituitary tumors.
109
The hypothalamus also may
harbor primary lymphomas of brain, gliomas, or
sarcoid granulomas. Patients with hypothalamic
lesions often appear to be hypersomnolent ra-
ther than comatose. They may yawn, stretch, or
sigh, features that are usually lacking in patients
with coma due to brainstem lesions.
UPPER BRAINSTEM INJURY
Evidence from clinicopathologic analyses firmly
establishes that the midbrain and pontine area
critical to consciousness in humans includes the
paramedian tegmental zone immediately ven-
tral to the periaqueductal gray matter, from the
caudal diencephalon through the rostral pons.
110
Numerous cases are on record of small lesions
involving this territory bilaterally in which there
was profound loss of consciousness (see Figure
1–11). On the other hand, we have not seen loss
of consciousness with lesions confined to the
medulla or the caudal pons. This principle is
illustrated by the historical vignettes on pages
30 and below.
HISTORICAL VIGNETTES
Patient 1–2
A 62-year-old woman was examined through the
courtesy of Dr. Walter Camp. Twenty-five years
earlier she had developed weakness and severely
impaired position and vibration sense of the right
arm and leg. Two years before we saw her, she
developed paralysis of the right vocal cord and
wasting of the right side of the tongue, followed by
insidiously progressing disability with an unsteady
gait and more weakness of the right limbs. Four
days before coming to the hospital, she became
much weaker on the right side, and 2 days later she
lost the ability to swallow.
When she entered the hospital she was alert and
in full possession of her faculties. She had no diffi-
culty breathing and her blood pressure was 162/
110 mm Hg. She had upbeat nystagmus on upward
gaze and decreased appreciation of pinprick on the
left side of the face. The right sides of the pharynx,
palate, and tongue were paralyzed. The right arm
and leg were weak and atrophic, consistent with dis-
use. Stretch reflexes below the neck were bilaterally
brisk, and the right plantar response was extensor.
Position and vibratory sensations were reduced on
the right side of the body and the appreciation of
pinprick was reduced on the left.
The next day she was still alert and responsive,
but she developed difficulty in coughing and speak-
ing and finally she ceased breathing. An endotra-
cheal tube was placed and mechanical ventilation
was begun. Later, on that third hospital day, she
was still bright and alert and quickly and accu-
rately answered questions by nodding or shaking
her head. The opening pressure of cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) at lumbar puncture was 180 mm of
water, and the xanthochromic fluid contained
8,500 red blood cells/mm
3
and 14 white blood
cells/mm
3
.
She lived for 23 more days. During that time she
developed complete somatic motor paralysis below
the face. Several hypotensive crises were treated
promptly with infusions of pressor agents, but no
pressor drugs were needed during the last 2 weeks
of life. Intermittently during those final days, she had
brief periods of unresponsiveness, but then awakened
and signaled quickly and appropriately to questions
Pathophysiology of Signs and Symptoms of Coma
33
demanding a yes or no answer and opened or
closed her eyes and moved them laterally when
commanded to do so. There was no other voluntary
movement. Four days before she died, she devel-
oped ocular bobbing when commanded to look
laterally, but although she consistently responded
to commands by moving her eyes, it was difficult
to know whether or not her responses were appro-
priate. During the ensuing 3 days, evidence of
wakefulness decreased. She died of gastrointestinal
hemorrhage 26 days after entering the hospital.
The brain at autopsy contained a moderate
amount of dark, old blood overlying the right lat-
eral medulla adjacent to the fourth ventricle. A
raspberry-appearing arteriovenous malformation,
1.4 cm in greatest diameter, protruded from the
right lateral medulla, beginning with its lower
border 2.5 cm caudal to the obex. On section, the
vascular malformation was seen to originate in the
central medulla and to extend rostrally to approx-
imately 2 mm above the obex. From this point, a
large hemorrhage extended forward to destroy the
central medulla all the way to the pontine junction
(Figure 1–9B). Microscopic study demonstrated
that, at its most cranial end, the hemorrhage de-
stroyed the caudal part of the right vestibular nuclei
and most of the adjacent lower pontine tegmen-
tum on the right. Caudal to this, the hemorrhage
widened and destroyed the entire dorsal center of
the medulla from approximately the plane of the
nucleus of the glossopharyngeal nerve down to just
below the plane of the nucleus ambiguus. From
this latter point caudally, the hemorrhage was
more restricted to the reticular formation of the
medulla. The margins of this lesion contained an
organizing clot with phagocytosis and reticulum
formation indicating a process at least 2 weeks
old. The center of the hemorrhage contained a de-
generating clot estimated to be at least 72 hours
old; at several places along the lateral margin of
the lesion were small fresh hemorrhages estimated
to have occurred within a few hours of death. It was
considered unlikely that the lesion had changed
substantially in size or extent of destruction in the
few days before death.
Patient 1–3
A 65-year-old woman was admitted to the neuro-
logy service for ‘‘coma’’ after an anesthetic proce-
dure. She had rheumatoid arthritis with subluxa-
tion of C1 on C2, and compression of the C2 root
causing occipital neuralgia. An anesthesiologist at-
tempted to inject the root with ethanol to elimi-
nate the pain. Almost immediately after the injec-
tion, the patient became flaccid and experienced a
respiratory arrest. On arrival in the neurology in-
tensive care unit she was hypotensive and apneic.
Mechanical ventilation was instituted and blood
pressure was supported with pressors.
On examination she had spontaneous eye move-
ments in the vertical direction only and her eyelids
fluttered open and closed. There was complete flac-
cid paralysis of the hypoglossal, vagal, and acces-
sory nerves, as well as all spinal motor function.
Twitches of facial and jaw movement persisted.
There was no response to pinprick over the face or
body. CT scan showed hypodensity of the medulla
and lower pons.
The patient responded to commands to open and
close her eyes and learned to communicate in this
way. She lived another 12 weeks in this setting, with-
out regaining function, and rarely was observed to
sleep. No postmortem examination was permitted.
However, the injection of ethanol had apparently
entered the C2 root sleeve and fixed the lower
brainstem up through the facial and abducens nu-
clei without clouding the state of consciousness of
the patient.
Comment: Both of these cases demonstrated the
preservation of consciousness in patients with a
locked-in state due to destruction of motor path-
ways below the critical level of the rostral pons.
Chapter 2 will explore the ways in which the neu-
rologic examination of a comatose patient can be
used to differentiate these different causes of loss
of consciousness.
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