the arousal system or to diffuse dysfunction of
its diencephalic or forebrain targets.
Because sleep is a regulated state, it has
several characteristics that distinguish it from
coma. A key feature of sleep is that the subject
can be aroused from it to wakefulness. Patients
who are obtunded may be aroused briefly, but
they require continuous stimulation to main-
tain a wakeful state, and comatose patients may
not be arousable at all. In addition, sleeping
subjects undergo a variety of postural adjust-
ments, including yawning, stretching, and turn-
ing, which are not seen in patients with path-
ologic impairment of level of consciousness.
The most important difference, however, is
the lack of cycling between NREM and REM
sleep in patients in coma. Sleeping subjects
undergo a characteristic pattern of waxing and
waning depth of NREM sleep during the night,
punctuated by bouts of REM sleep, usually
beginning when the NREM sleep reaches its
lightest phase. The monotonic high-voltage slow
waves in the EEG of the comatose patient indi-
cate that although coma may share with NREM
sleep the property of a low level of activity in the
ascending arousal systems, it is a fundamentally
different and pathologic state.
The Cerebral Hemispheres
and Conscious Behavior
The cerebral cortex acts like a massively parallel
processor that breaks down the components of
sensory experience into a wide array of abstrac-
tions that are analyzed independently and in
parallel during normal conscious experience.
42
This organizational scheme predicts many of the
properties of consciousness, and it sheds light
on how these many parallel streams of cortical
activity are reassimilated into a single conscious
state.
The cerebral neocortex of mammals, from
rodents to humans, consists of a sheet of neu-
rons divided into six layers. Inputs from the tha-
lamic relay nuclei arrive mainly in layer IV, which
consists of small granule cells. Inputs from other
cortical areas arrive into layers II, III, and V.
Layers II and III consist of small- to medium-
sized pyramidal cells, arrayed with their apical
dendrites pointing toward the cortical surface.
Layer V contains much larger pyramidal cells,
also in the same orientation. The apical den-
drites of the pyramidal cells in layers II, III, and
V receive afferents from thalamic and cortical
axons that course through layer I parallel to the
cortical surface. Layer VI comprises a varied
collection of neurons of different shapes and
sizes (the polymorph layer). Layer III provides
most projections to other cortical areas, whereas
layer V provides long-range projections to the
brainstem and spinal cord. The deep part of
layer V projects to the striatum. Layer VI pro-
vides the reciprocal output from the cortex back
to the thalamus.
91
It has been known since the 1960s that the
neurons in successive layers along a line drawn
through the cerebral cortex perpendicular to
the pial surface all tend to be concerned with
similar sensory or motor processes.
92,93
These
neurons form columns, of about 0.3 to 0.5 mm
in width, in which the nerve cells share incom-
ing signals in a vertically integrated manner.
Recordings of neurons in each successive layer
of a column of visual cortex, for example, all
respond to bars of light in a particular orien-
tation in a particular part of the visual field.
Columns of neurons send information to one
another and to higher order association areas
via projection cells in layer III and, to a lesser
extent, layer V.
94
In this way, columns of neu-
rons are able to extract progressively more com-
plex and abstract information from an incom-
ing sensory stimulus. For example, neurons in
a primary visual cortical area may be primarily
concerned with simple lines, edges,and corners,
but by integrating their inputs, a neuron in
a higher order visual association area may
Pathophysiology of Signs and Symptoms of Coma
25
respond only to a complex shape, such as a hand
or a brush.
The organization of the cortical column does
not vary much from mammals with the most
simple cortex, such as rodents, to primates with
much larger and more complex cortical devel-
opment. The depth or width of a column, for
example, is only marginally larger in a primate
brain than in a rat brain. What has changed
most across evolution has been the number of
columns. The hugely enlarged sheet of cortical
columns in a human brain provides the mas-
sively parallel processing power needed to per-
form a sonata on the piano, solve a differential
equation, or send a rocket to another planet.
An important principle of cortical organi-
zation is that neurons in different areas of the
cerebral cortex specialize in certain types of
operations. In a young brain, before school age,
it is possible for cortical functions to reorga-
nize themselves to an astonishing degree if one
area of cortex is damaged. However, the orga-
nization of cortical information processing goes
through a series of critical stages during de-
velopment, in which the maturing cortex gives
up a degree of plasticity but demonstrates im-
proved efficiency of processing.
95,96
In adults,
the ability to perform a specific cognitive pro-
cess may be irretrievably assigned to a region
of cortex, and when that area is damaged, the
individual not only loses the ability to perform
that operation, but also loses the very concept
that the information of that type exists. Hence,
the individual with a large right parietal infarct
not only loses the ability to appreciate stimuli
from the left side of space, but also loses the
concept that there is a left side of space. We
have witnessed a patient with a large right pa-
rietal lobe tumor who ate only the food on the
right side of her plate; when done, she would
Figure 1–6. A summary drawing of the laminar organization of the neurons and inputs to the cerebral cortex. The neuronal
layers of the cerebral cortex are shown at the left, as seen in a Nissl stain, and in the middle of the drawing as seen in Golgi
stains. Layer I has few if any neurons. Layers II and III are composed of small pyramidal cells, and layer V of larger pyra-
midal cells. Layer IV contains very small granular cells, and layer VI, the polymorph layer, cells of multiple types. Axons
from the thalamic relay nuclei (a, b) provide intense ramifications mainly in layer IV. Inputs from the ‘‘nonspecific system,’’
which includes the ascending arousal system, ramify more diffusely, predominantly in layers II, III, and V (c, d). Axons
from other cortical areas ramify mainly in layers II, III, and V (e, f). (From Lorente de No R. Cerebral cortex: archi-
tecture, intracortical connections, motor projections. In Fulton, JF. Physiology of the Nervous System. Oxford University
Press, New York, 1938, pp. 291–340. By permission of Oxford University Press.)
26
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
get up and turn around to the right, until the
remaining food appeared on her right side, as
she was entirely unable to conceive that the
plate or space itself had a left side. Similarly, a
patient with aphasia due to damage to Wer-
nicke’s area in the dominant temporal lobe not
only cannot appreciate the language symbol
content of speech, but also can no longer com-
prehend that language symbols are an operative
component of speech. Such a patient continues
to speak meaningless babble and is surprised
that others no longer understand his speech
because the very concept that language sym-
bols are embedded in speech eludes him.
This concept of fractional loss of conscious-
ness is critical because it explains confusional
states caused by focal cortical lesions. It is also a
common observation by clinicians that, if the
cerebral cortex is damaged in multiple locations
by a multifocal disorder, it can eventually cease
to function as a whole, producing a state of
such severe cognitive impairment as to give the
appearance of a global loss of consciousness.
During a Wada test, a patient receives an in-
jection of a short-acting barbiturate into the
carotid artery to anesthetize one hemisphere so
that its role in language can be assessed prior
to cortical surgery. When the left hemisphere is
acutely anesthetized, the patient gives the ap-
pearance of confusion and is typically placid but
difficult to test due to the absence of language
skills. When the patient recovers, he or she
typically is amnestic for the event, as much of
memory is encoded verbally. Following a right
hemisphere injection, the patient also typically
appears to be confused and is unable to orient
to his or her surroundings, but can answer sim-
ple questions and perform simple commands.
The experience also may not be remembered
clearly, perhaps because of the sudden inability
to encode visuospatial memory.
However, the patient does not appear to be
unconscious when either hemisphere is acutely
anesthetized. An important principle of exam-
ining patients with impaired consciousness is
that the condition is not caused by a lesion whose
acute effects are confined to a single hemi-
sphere. A very large space-occupying lesion may
simultaneously damage both hemispheres or
may compress the diencephalon, causing im-
pairment of consciousness, but an acute infarct
of one hemisphere does not. Hence, loss of
consciousness is not a typical feature of unilat-
eral carotid disease unless both hemispheres
are supplied by a single carotid artery or the
patient has had a subsequent seizure.
The concept of the cerebral cortex as a mas-
sively parallel processor introduces the question
of how all of these parallel streams of informa-
tion are eventually integrated into a single con-
sciousness, a conundrum that has been called
the binding problem.
97,98
Embedded in this
question, however, is a supposition: that it is
necessary to reassemble all aspects of our ex-
perience into a single whole so that they can
be monitored by an internal being, like a small
person or homunculus watching a television
screen. Although most people believe that they
experience consciousness in this way, there is
no a priori reason why such a self-experience
cannot be the neurophysiologic outcome of the
massively parallel processing (i.e., the illusion of
reassembly, without the brain actually requiring
that to occur in physical space). For example,
people experience the visual world as an un-
broken scene. However, each of us has a pair of
holes in the visual fields where the optic nerves
penetrate the retina. This blind spot can be dem-
onstrated by passing a small object along the
visual horizon until it disappears. However, the
visual field is ‘‘seen’’ by the conscious self as a
single unbroken expanse, and this hole is pa-
pered over with whatever visual material bor-
ders it. If the brain can produce this type of
conscious impression in the absence of reality,
there is no reason to think that it requires a
physiologic reassembly of other stimuli for pre-
sentation to a central homunculus. Rather, con-
sciousness may be conceived as a property of
the integrated activity of the two cerebral hemi-
spheres and not in need of a separate physical
manifestation.
Despite this view of consciousness as an
‘‘emergent’’ property of hemispheric informa-
tion processing, the hemispheres do require
a mechanism for arriving at a singularity of
thought and action. If each of the independent
information streams in the cortical parallel pro-
cessor could separately command motor re-
sponses, human movement would be a hopeless
confusion of mixed activities. A good example
is seen in patients in whom the corpus callosum
has been transected to prevent spread of epi-
leptic seizures.
99
In such ‘‘split-brain’’ patients,
the left hand may button a shirt and the right
hand follow along right behind it unbuttoning.
If independent action of the two hemispheres
can be so disconcerting, one could only imagine
Pathophysiology of Signs and Symptoms of Coma
27
the effect of each stream of cortical processing
commanding its own plan of action.
The brain requires a funnel to narrow down
the choices from all of the possible modes of
action to the single plan of motor behavior that
will be pursued. The physical substrate of this
process is the basal ganglia. All cortical regions
provide input to the striatum (caudate, putamen,
nucleus accumbens, and olfactory tubercle). The
output from the striatum is predominantly to
the globus pallidus, which it inhibits by using
the neurotransmitter GABA.
100,101
The pallidal
output pathways, in turn, also are GABAergic
and constitutively inhibit the motor thalamus,
so that when the striatal inhibitory input to the
pallidum is activated, movement is disinhibited.
By constricting all motor responses that are not
specifically activated by this system, the basal
ganglia ensure a smooth and steady, unitary
stream of action. Basal ganglia disorders that
permit too much striatal disinhibition of move-
ment (hyperkinetic movement disorders) result
in the emergence of disconnected movements
that are outside this unitary stream (e.g., tics,
chorea, athetosis).
Similarly, the brain is capable of following
only one line of thought at a time. The con-
scious self is prohibited even from seeing two
equally likely versions of an optical illusion si-
multaneously (e.g., the classic case of the ugly
woman vs. the beautiful woman illusion) (Figure
1–7). Rather, the self is aware of the two alter-
native visual interpretations alternately. Simi-
larly, if it is necessary to pursue two different
tasks at the same time, they are pursued alter-
nately rather than simultaneously, until they
become so automatic that they can be per-
formed with little conscious thought. The stri-
atal control of thought processes is implemen-
ted by the outflow from the ventral striatum to
the ventral pallidum, which in turn inhibits the
mediodorsal thalamic nucleus, the relay nu-
cleus for the prefrontal cortex.
100,101
By dis-
inhibiting prefrontal thought processes, the
striatum ensures that a single line of thought
and a unitary view of self will be expressed
from the multipath network of the cerebral
cortex.
An interesting philosophic question is raised
by the hyperkinetic movement disorders, in
which the tics, chorea, and athetosis are thought
to represent ‘‘involuntary movements.’’ But the
use of the term ‘‘involuntary’’ again presupposes
a homunculus that is in control and making de-
cisions. Instead, the interrelationship of invol-
untary movements, which the self feels ‘‘com-
pelled’’ to make, with self-willed movements is
complex. Patients with movement disorders of-
ten can inhibit the unwanted movements for
a while, but feel uncomfortable doing so, and
often report pleasurable release when they can
carry out the action. Again, the conscious state
is best considered as an emergent property of
brain function, rather than directing it.
Similarly, hyperkinetic movement disorders
may be associated with disinhibition of larger
scale behaviors and even thought processes. In
this view, thought disorders can be conceived
as chorea (derailing) and dystonia (fixed delu-
sions) of thought. Release of prefrontal cortex
inhibition may even permit it to drive mental
imagery, producing hallucinations. Under such
conditions, we have a tendency to believe that
somehow the conscious self is a homunculus
that is being tricked by hallucinatory sensory
experiences or is unable to command thought
processes. In fact, it may be more accurate to
view the sensory experience and the behavior as
manifestations of an altered consciousness due
to malfunction of the brain’s machinery for main-
taining a unitary flow of thought and action.
Neurologists tend to take the mechanistic
perspective that all that we observe is due to ac-
Figure 1–7. A classic optical illusion, illustrating the in-
ability of the brain to view the same scene simultaneously
in two different ways. The image of the ugly, older woman
or the pretty younger woman may be seen alternately, but
not at the same time, as the same visual elements are used
in two different percepts. (From W.E. Hill, ‘‘My Wife and
My Mother-in-Law,’’ 1915, for Puck magazine. Used by
permission. All rights reserved.)
28
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
tion of the nervous system behaving according to
fundamental principles. Hence, the evaluation
of the comatose patient becomes an exercise in
applying those principles to the evaluation of a
human with brain failure.
Structural Lesions That Cause
Altered Consciousness in Humans
To produce stupor or coma in humans, a dis-
order must damage or depress the function of
either extensive areas of both cerebral hemi-
spheres or the ascending arousal system, includ-
ing the paramedian region of the upper brain-
stem or the diencephalon on both sides of the
brain. Figure 1–8 illustrates examples of such
lesions that may cause coma. Conversely, uni-
lateral hemispheric lesions, or lesions of the
brainstem at the level of the midpons or below,
do not cause coma. Figure 1–9 illustrates sev-
eral such cases that may cause profound sensory
and motor deficits but do not impair conscious-
ness.
Figure 1–8. Brain lesions that cause coma. (A) Diffuse hemispheric damage, for example, due to hypoxic-ischemic
encephalopathy (see Patient 1–1). (B) Diencephalic injury, as in a patient with a tumor destroying the hypothalamus.
(C) Damage to the paramedian portion of the upper midbrain and caudal diencephalon, as in a patient with a tip of the basilar
embolus. (D) High pontine and lower midbrain paramedian tegmental injury (e.g., in a case of basilar artery occlusion).
(E) Pontine hemorrhage, because it produces compression of the surrounding brainstem, can cause dysfunction that extends
beyond the area of the tissue loss. This case shows the residual area of injury at autopsy 7 months after a pontine hemorrhage.
The patient was comatose during the first 2 months.
Pathophysiology of Signs and Symptoms of Coma
29
BILATERAL HEMISPHERIC
DAMAGE
Bilateral and extensive damage to the cere-
bral cortex occurs most often in the context of
hypoxic-ischemic insult. The initial response to
loss of cerebral blood flow (CBF) or insuffi-
cient oxygenation of the blood includes loss of
consciousness. Even if blood flow or oxygena-
tion is restored after 5 or more minutes, there
may be widespread cortical injury and neuro-
nal loss even in the absence of frank infarc-
tion.
102,103
The typical appearance pathologi-
cally is that neurons in layers III and V (which
receive the most glutamatergic input from
other cortical areas) and in the CA1 region of
the hippocampus (which receives exten-
sive glutamatergic input from both the CA3
fields and the entorhinal cortex) demonstrate
eosinophilia in the first few days after the in-
jury. Later, the neurons undergo pyknosis and
apoptotic cell death (Figure 1–10). The net re-
sult is pseudolaminar necrosis, in which the
cerebral cortex and the CA1 region both are
depopulated of pyramidal cells.
Alternatively, in some patients with less ex-
treme cortical hypoxia, there may be a lucid
interval in which the patient appears to recover,
followed by a subsequent deterioration. Such a
patient is described in the historical vignette on
this and the following page. (Throughout this
book we will use historical vignettes to describe
cases that occurred before the modern era of
neurologic diagnosis and treatment, in which
the natural history of a disorder unfolded in a
way in which it would seldom do today. Fortu-
nately, most such cases included pathologic
assessment, which is also all too infrequent in
modern cases.)
HISTORICAL VIGNETTE
Patient 1–1
A 59-year-old man was found unconscious in a
room filled with natural gas. A companion already
had died, apparently the result of an attempted
double suicide. On admission the man was unre-
sponsive. His blood pressure was 120/80 mm Hg,
pulse 120, and respirations 18 and regular. His rectal
temperature was 1028F. His stretch reflexes were
hypoactive, and plantar responses were absent.
Coarse rhonchi were heard throughout both lung
fields.
He was treated with nasal oxygen and began to
awaken in 30 hours. On the second hospital day
he was alert and oriented. On the fourth day he was
afebrile, his chest was clear, and he ambulated.
The neurologic examination was normal, and an
evaluation by a psychiatrist revealed a clear senso-
rium with ‘‘no evidence of organic brain damage.’’
He was discharged to his relatives’ care 9 days
after the anoxic event.
At home he remained well for 2 days but then
became quiet, speaking only when spoken to. The
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