112
Deviant by Design
Iruka (died 645)—who is himself later beheaded, with his body sent back
to his father, Soga no Emishi (died 645), who then commits suicide. Nor
does it stop there. Later military conflicts during the reigns of Emperor
Tenmu (died 686), Empress Gensh
ō
(680–748), and Emperor Sh
ō
mu
(701–56) extend Tadachika’s catalogue of misfortune. The final scroll con-
tinues in the same vein. The immortal relating the events pronounces
the behavior of Empress K
ō
ken’s (718–70) crown prince, “the deposed em-
peror” who is the subject of the scroll’s first biography, “scandalous.”
61
This is followed by a seemingly endless chain of armed conflicts: Fuji-
wara no Nakamaro (706–64) finds himself on the wrong side of the in-
famous monk D
ō
ky
ō
(died 772); Fujiwara no Momokawa (732–79) ruth-
lessly manipulates imperial succession, killing others as needed; Prince
Iyo (died 807) unsuccessfully attempts a coup and kills himself; Retired
Emperor Heizei (774–824)
rebels against his son; and so forth.
In the final scroll, more than any other, Buddhist achievements are
acknowledged, in particular those involving the renowned monks Saich
ō
(767–822), K
ū
kai, and Ennin (794–864). Nonetheless, in comparison to
the information on Saich
ō
and K
ū
kai found in
Abbreviated Records
, even
these heroes of early Japanese Buddhism are granted relatively short
shrift.
62
As a whole, although
The Water Mirror
dutifully records the oc-
casional Buddhist miracle or demonstration of merit, Tadachika’s asser-
tion that the world has been bad from the start is consistently supported.
The final biography in the scroll, that of Emperor Ninmy
ō
, delivers a one-
two punch to this effect in its closing lines:
On Kashō 1 [848].3.26, Jikaku Daishi [Ennin] returned from China. While
he had been in China, he had encountered a wicked king and seen many
sad things. He met with a time in which the Buddha’s sutras were burned,
and nuns and monks forced to return to lay life; this Great Teacher, too,
was forced to return to life as a layman and cover his [shaven] head.
In the third month of Kashō 3 [850], the emperor’s illness grew grave; he
took the tonsure and died within the day.
63
61. Kaneko e
t a
l.,
Mizukagami zen chūshaku
, 313.
62. The biographies of the emperors under whom Ennin
was active are largely
missing from
Abbreviated Records
.
63. Kaneko e
t a
l.,
Mizukagami zen chūshaku
, 446–47.
Multilingual Writing in Medieval Japan
113
Having given so little attention to events outside of Japan, it is striking
that Tadachika chooses the burning of Buddhist imagery in China as
among the horrific things Ennin encounters. The inclusion of this inci-
dent, so out of keeping with much of Tadachika’s content, suggests that
it had a particular resonance for his audience. Taira no Kiyomori’s much-
censured wartime burning of the temples at Nara would have been an
easy association for medieval readers to make, reminding them once again
that even something as notorious as Kiyomori’s behavior was not unheard
of in earlier times (although in China).
In short, Tadachika has crafted an account of Japan’s founding in
which the world has always been beset by conflict and death and even
the most impressive figures have a fleeting existence. In so doing, he pre-
sents a world in which the losses sustained in the Genpei War are not
fundamentally extraordinary. The seeming rupture created by the war
does not, after all, mark the start of something new. The reader is granted
a narrative of the past in which the civil war is merely one example of
unrest, albeit an extreme one, in a timeless series: it is no longer a mo-
ment of “foundational violence.”
Looking back at
A Minister’s Logbook
, Tadachika in 1185 probably
spoke for many when he asked, “Have we already arrived at the end of
the world?”
64
The Water Mirror
provides his answer: “Don’t go deceiv-
ing yourself into thinking that this might become an absolutely awful
age.”
65
The world has always been this way.
Writing and Witness:
The Water Mirror
’s
Use of a Hybrid Register
It is not only in its alterations to the notions of place, principle, and the
past that
The Water Mirror
marks a new strategy for processing historical
change. In its linguistic forms—the regular recurring interpolation of
kanbun
in a largely
wabun
text—it literally inscribes a new, inclusive way
of representing that change. Tadachika’s use of language marks the be-
64. Nakayama,
Sankaiki
, 3:227.
65. Kaneko e
t a
l.,
Mizukagami zen chūshaku
, 23.
114
Deviant by Design
ginning of a shift in the various written registers of subsequent
Mirrors
and one that I suspect plays no small part in the later co-optation of the
genre by the Kamakura shogunate. Understanding this involves both an
examination of how
kanbun
material is repurposed into a multilingual
(or multistyle) text and an investigation into what the blending of regis-
ters in the resulting work enables—namely, a framework that rejects con-
ventional worldly categories of orthodox versus
deviant or oral versus
written and implies an authority that transcends such dichotomies.
Approaching the text from this angle rests on certain assumptions
about writing during this time period—especially the visual impact of
arguably distinct scriptive forms—that I use to assess the linguistic forms
in
The Water Mirror
. First and foremost, although I discuss these forms
in terms of
kanbun
and
wabun
, this is not equivalent to using the catego-
ries of Classical Chinese and Classical Japanese. David Lurie’s work in
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