Communion
, I
discussed in the previous chapter. Unsurprisingly, Atwood sees the wild animal
story
as “[t]he Canadian genre” (73), and yet she is one of the few to do so.
Most critics acknowledge Seton
’s and Roberts’ shared nationality, but discuss
the genre and its environment as American. Dunlap and Lutts, for instance,
consider a range of cultural contexts and attitudes to nature, yet they only refer
to America, effectively subsuming
Canada’s culture and history into that of the
United States. However, Dunlap concludes by recognizing a mid-twentieth-
century rival of the genre and listing only Canadian authors. Lutts tends to lump
all targets of the Nature Fakers controversy together. Moreover, despite his use
of the tit
le ‘realistic’ wild animal story, like Atwood, Lutts extends its future
iterations to include an array of American, Canadian, and English nature writers.
While these observations might seem pedantic, the issue here is not
accuracy for its own sake. For a misunderstood genre with a poor reputation,
the development of a concrete definition is vital if we are to understand
how
and
why
it was a unique innovation worthy of recognition. Therefore, it is just as
necessary to recognise the lack of common ground between Seton
’s writing and
Gibson’s writing, as it is to understand the differences between the authors
involved in the Nature Fakers controversy.
Jack London’s narratives are
reassuringly anthropocentric
, for instance, because his ‘wild’ animal
Allmark-Kent 72
protagonists are never truly autonomous. There is always a moment in which
the animal protects, reveres, or avenges a human life, thereby reaffirming
their
value to
us
.
Lutts identifies the genre’s pioneering resistance to this type of
utilitarian attitude as one of its defining characteristics:
“wild animal stories
presented a new view of wildlife
—they revealed nature as experienced by
animals who lived for their own ends. The animal’s worth was not measured by
how they satisfied or thwarted human expectations” (
Wild Animal Story
ix).
Although idealised through narratives of animal-human companionship, London
still tended to validate
his ‘wild’ protagonists through their ability to satisfy our
anthropocentric fantasies. On the other hand, the stories of William Long might
seem
to resemble those of Seton and Roberts, they were written from a very
different perspective. Although Burroughs described Long
as Seton’s “awkward
imitator” (printed in Lutts,
Wild Animal Story
129), his stories were not written to
engage with science, but to
resist
it. His clear opposition to the scientific view of
nature can be seen in his response to Burroughs:
The study of Nature is a vastly different thing from the study of Science
[...] Above and beyond the world of facts and law, with which alone
Science concerns itself, is an immense and almost unknown world of
suggestions and freedom and inspiration [...] In a word, the difference
between Nature and Science is the difference between a man who loves
animals, and so understands them, and the man who studies Zooology; it
is the difference between the woman who cherishes her old-fashioned
flower garden and the professor who lectures on Botany. (Printed in
Lutts,
The Nature Fakers
60)
Despite his extremely narrow view of science, there are merits to Lon
g’s
thinking and his stories. He writes eloquently regarding the reductive,
objectifying use
of ‘instinct’ to undermine animal intelligence, and of the ways in
which animal psychology is unable to account for individual differences.
Nonetheless, as I will demonstrate, his
‘anti-science’ attitude is at odds with the
scientific core of wild animal story. As such, it seems as though the arguments
Allmark-Kent 73
of Gold, MacDonald, and Fiamengo might be more suited to Long’s animal
stories than those of Seton or Roberts. Perhaps due to his hostility towards
animal psychology, however,
Long’s stories are considerably more
anthropomorphic and romanticized, often tending towards the didactic,
moralizing style of the children’s animal story (which I will discuss in the
“Literature”
section of this chapter).
Furthermore, I have a suspicion that there is some confusion regarding
Seton, Roberts and Long, and as a result their stories and reputations have
often been merged together. Both Long and his work have been almost entirely
forgotten, and today (rather ironically) he is known only to those who study the
Nature Fakers controversy. Since Seton and Roberts had avoided getting too
involved in the
debate, Long’s outspoken defence of his own work eventually
shifted the focus of the controversy onto himself, and away from the others. In
fact, Burroughs identified Long as the real target of the article that started the
debate:
“It is Mr. Long’s book, more than any of the others, that justifies the
phrase ‘Sham Natural History’” (129).
As I will discuss later in the chapter,
Burroughs is undoubtedl
y derisive of Seton’s work, and he reprimands Roberts
(albeit briefly), but he does not mention Jack London at all. Thanks to his solid
position in the American canon, and only tentative association with the wild
animal story, few people today are aware of London’s involvement in the
controversy. Thus, with the Americans effectively either pardoned or forgotten, it
is to the two Canadians that the
stigma of ‘Nature Faker’ has been attached
ever since. We can begin to see the error in disregarding the wild animal story
as an ‘embarrassment’ to Canadian literature.
As argued in the previous chapter, the wild animal story
can
be
understood as a Canadian genre
—just a very minor one. In 1965 Lucas
Allmark-Kent 74
observed that
wild animal stories “have not been especially numerous,” and
indeed that Seton and Roberts had “made the history of the wild animal story
almost entirely the history of their work
in it” (398). Today, little has changed.
Rather than a widespread national literary tradition, as Atwood would have it,
the wild animal story is the work of a few authors
—individuals who either wrote
animal stories consistently over a lifetime of interest in natural history and
conservation, or else poets and writers of fiction who experimented with the
genre and the creative task of imagining a nonhuman perspective. As I will
demonstrate in subsequent chapters, this means that the genre may
appear
to
resurface at random throughout the twentieth century, but its embers have
always been kept alive by the overlapping careers of these few writers. The fact
that they are Canadian owes somethin
g to the nation’s complex relationship
with animals, but also to the cultural legacies of Seton, Roberts, and the Nature
Fakers controversy. As a Canadian genre, it was a Canadian embarrassment;
yet before and after the controversy, it was also an immensely popular form of
writing that shaped the childhoods of many. Whether loved or hated, it is in
response to the wild animal story that a certain proportion of twentieth-century
Canadian literature has been written. Based on my own observations, I have
developed a definition of the wild animal story that recognizes its distinctiveness
as a unique innovation, whilst also allowing room for those few writers who have
kept the form alive.
The wild animal story is a scientifically-informed, zoocentric narrative; a
sustained attempt to imagine the life, experiences, and unique perspective of
one or more nonhuman protagonists, living independently and autonomously
from humans. These individuals experience the world through networks of
meaningful nonhuman interaction, exchange, and companionship
—revealing an
Allmark-Kent 75
animal existence that is valued for its own sake and on its own terms, not for
how useful it is to humans. Whilst the occasional human character may be used
as an observer (essentially a conduit for the human reader) these animal
protagonists tend to encounter humans only through moments of struggle or
violence, allowing the author to provide a defamiliarizing, nonhuman account of
our exploitative practices. Moreover, through dramatic irony, these narratives
resist the objectification and erasure that is necessary for an anthropocentric
disregard for animal life. An animal killed in a human-centred narrative is not
given a second thought; in the wild animal story, the reader has the prior
knowledge of this unique individual's history, personality, and relationships. In
other words, the animal death always has
Dostları ilə paylaş: |