meaning.
As such, the authors of
these narratives all seek some form of practical engagement: whether raising
awareness of ecological and conservation issues; encouraging empathy and
moral concern for animal exploitation; facilitating the imaginative exploration of
nonhuman perspectives; or speculating on the upper limits of animal cognitive,
social, linguistic, emotional, or cultural complexity.
Based on my own surveys, I have developed a set of wild animal story
characteristics, through which I will analyse the later twentieth-century texts in
the following chapters of this thesis:
Animal characters represented
as animals
, as
individuals
, and as
living
autonomously
from humans
Animals characters shown to possess a
biography
and unique life
history
Animals characters are seen existing in
meaningful networks of
nonhuman interaction
Allmark-Kent 76
Defamiliarization
is used to challenge
violent and exploitative
practices
, as well as the
species stereotypes
that legitimize them (for
example, this species is ‘vermin,’ therefore human violence against
them should be accepted and encouraged)
Scientifically-informed representations that may either
demonstrate
the current understanding or
speculate
on the upper limits of each
species’ cognitive, emotional, social, cultural, and linguistic
complexity
Representations that may seek to challenge our definitions of
human
uniqueness
(such as the use of language, the use of tools, showing
altruistic behaviour and so on)
Authors may reinforce their representations through
evidence
of
some form (for instance anecdotes, archive materials, research, or
first-hand observation)
In the next chapter, “Wild Animals and Nature Fakers,” I will explain these
characteristics in detail and reveal their presence in Seton
’s and Roberts’
stories. I will also demonstrate the ways in which they relate to the contextual
factors discussed in the current chapter: ‘literature,’ ‘advocacy,’ and ‘science’,
using the zoocentric framework.
In the biography,
Charles G.D. Roberts
(1923), James Cappon asserts
that
the “honour of originating” the wild animal story belongs to Roberts,
although “it has been said that [he] was an imitator of Kipling, Thompson Seton
and others in his trea
tment of the nature story” (16, 18). Cappon explains:
In the first place he contributed “Do Seek Their Meat from God” to
Harper’s Magazine
in the late eighties, and from then on provided a
constantly increasing number of similar stories in
Lippincott’s Magazine
,
Youth’s Companion
and many more. If, therefore, there was any imitating
it must have been by someone else. (18-9)
Allmark-Kent 77
Yet, in a short piece for
The Bookman
(1913), Roberts makes no such claims
for himself, stating instead that
Seton “is chiefly responsible for the vogue of the
modern ‘Animal Story’” (147). The publication dates would seem to confirm this,
and in the preface to
Lives of the Hunted
(1901), Seton comments that the story
of the “Chickadee” is “one of a series of stories written in the period from 1881
to 1893, and published in various magazines. It is inserted [here] as an example
of my early work” (10). Crucially, however, Seton recognizes a difference
between these stories and those written from the mid-1890s onwards. In the
earlier form, he admits to using “the
archaic
method, making the animals talk
[...] Since then I have adhered to the more
scientific
method of which ‘Lobo’ is
my earliest important example. This was written in February, 1894, for
‘Scribners Magazine,’ and published November, 1894” (10-11, emphasis
added). Despite his work as a naturalist, it is rare for Seton to describe his own
stories in scientific terms; instead it is Roberts
who emphasizes this relationship
with animal psychology. In the same
Bookman
article, Roberts comments:
“there is another side of these stories and it is the pre-eminently distinctive side.
They aim above all to get at the psychology of their subjects. [...] From
observed actions they strive to deduce motives and emotions” (147). Hence, I
see Seton and Roberts as co-creators of the realistic wild animal story and I
suggest that they played very different roles. Whilst Seton had been working as
an artist, naturalist, and occasional hunter, Roberts had been editing literary
journals and teaching English and French literature (Cappon 8-9). In 1896,
however, Roberts resigned his professorship and moved to New York, where he
met and befriended Seton, and the two even discussed collaborating on a
collection of stories (Cappon 16, Fiamengo 38). Thus, I would contend that
whilst Seton made the original innovation, Roberts defined and refined the
Allmark-Kent 78
genre. Like the talking animals that
he mentions, some of Seton’s stories can be
considered as uncharacteristic of the wild animal story; being more
anthropocentric and autobiographical than is usual, for instance. Alternatively,
although Roberts’ stories can border on the formulaic, he is consistent and
utilizes the preface of each book to reinforce the aims and parameters of the
genre.
Dostları ilə paylaş: |