intentional
kind.
Allmark-Kent 96
Instinct is reflex action into which there is imported the element of
consciousness. The term is therefore a generic one, comprising all of
those faculties of mind which are concerned in conscious and adaptive
action, antecedent to individual experience,
without necessary
knowledge of the relation between means employed and ends attained
,
but similarly performed under similar and frequent recurring
circumstances by
all the individuals of the same species.
Reason or intelligence is the faculty which is concerned in the
intentional
adaptation of means to ends
. It therefore implies the
conscious
knowledge
of the relation between means employed and ends attained,
and may be exercised in adaptation to
circumstances novel alike to the
experience of the individual and to that of the species.
(
Intelligence
17,
emphasis added.)
He identifies the criteria of “mind” as the ability to learn from “individual
experience,” and “if a lowly organized animal
does
learn by its own individual
experience, we are in possession of the best available evidence of conscious
memory le
ading to intentional adaptation” (4-5, emphasis original). Thus, in
Romanes’ view, the ability to respond to novel circumstances, remember and
learn from the experience, and then intentionally apply or adapt that knowledge
is ‘reason.’ In fact, in a table he created to illustrate the cognitive and emotional
development of each species (published in
Mental Evolution
), he indicates that
the ‘lowest’ species capable of reason are batrachia (frogs and salamanders),
fish, higher crustacia (crabs and lobsters), reptiles, and cephalopods.
Consequently, this means that he identifies reason in all mammals and birds, as
well as hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and so on). Likewise he finds all
animals from echinoderms (starfish, sea urchins, and similar) upwards to be
conscious beings capable of pleasure, pain, and memory. According to
Romanes, emotions develop in accordance with cognitive complexity; so,
although he saw none in echinoderms, if we move up the table a few spaces,
we find that spiders and insects (other than hymenoptera) have the potential for:
secondary instincts, recognition of offspring, parental affection, social feelings,
Allmark-Kent 97
sexual selection, pugnacity, industry, and curiosity. Interestingly, he also added
a column for the corresponding stage of development in a human infant. For
instance, according to Romanes, birds are capable of recognizing pictures,
understanding words, dreaming, emulation, pride, resentment, aesthetic love of
ornament, and terror
—all of which require psychological and emotional
development equivalent to an eight month old infant. Although this might seem
oddly anthropocentric, it is clear that evolutionary continuity inspired this search
for similarity and analogy in nonhuman beings.
Perhaps because
Animal Intelligence
verified many reader’s perceptions
of animals, it was extremely popular with the public. In the minds of his peers,
however, Romanes’ reliance on anecdotal evidence associated him too closely
with the unreliable and unscientific popular writers. Although he did participate
in the popularization of sc
ience, it was mostly to continue promoting Darwin’s
work after his death. Indeed, as Joel Schwartz observes in his study of
Romanes’ publications in Victorian periodicals, the biologist did not take eagerly
to
the task and did not alter his language or style for the public: “his articles
were written very much as they were for scientific journals” (135). Despite
Romanes’ sincere efforts to forge comparative psychology into a respected
scientific discipline, the success would be had by his own protégé, Conwy Lloyd
Morgan. Unfortunately,
this accomplishment was due to Morgan’s efforts to
steer comparative psychology
away
from Romanes’ methods. He opposed the
use of anecdotal evidence and the search for ‘mind’ and ‘reason’ in animals.
Instead, he advocated the use of laboratory experiments to seek objective proof
of the controlling force of instinct. To prevent the potential anthropomorphic bias
of subjective observation and interpretation, he also developed a principle that
became known as Morgan’s canon. In
An Introduction to Comparative
Allmark-Kent 98
Psychology
(1894), he asserted that “[i]n no case may we interpret an action as
the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted
as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands
lower
in the psychological
scale” (53, emphasis added). Unlike Romanes, Morgan’s objective,
experimental approach reflected everything valued by modern science at the
time and, rather neatly, coincided with the rise of laboratory science and the
final acceptance of the professional title ‘scientist.’
Although this meant that comparative psychology was now accepted as
a science, Morgan’s canon would actually become the central tenet of
behaviourism
—a field that reached prominence in the 1920s and would
dominate the study of animal intelligence for most of the twentieth-century. In
“Animal Mind: Science, Philosophy, and Ethics” (2007), Bernard E. Rollin
explains the legacy of behaviourism:
From the time of Darwin the existence and
knowability
of animal
mentation was taken as axiomatic through the early years of the 20th-
century. But, after 1920, and even today, it is difficult to find British or
U.S. psychologists or classical European ethologists, who would accept
that view. (258, emphasis added)
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