In this section, I will begin with an analysis of Seton
’s and Roberts’ use of
anecdotes and evidence as part of their efforts to contribute to animal
psychology and produce stories with realism and veracity. I also suggest that
this emphasis on ‘evidence’ was used to legitimize their attempts to engage with
the sciences. Roberts synthesized his research seamlessly into coherent
narratives whereas Seton exposed his gathering of evidence and anecdotes. I
suggest that these differences have had a considerable impact on responses to
their work. Whilst Roberts received less criticism in the Nature Fakers debate,
his stories were more easily dismissed as anthropomorphic fiction. Although
Seton divided opinions and faced greater controversy, but his authority as a
naturalist was usually still respected. I have provided already examples in this
Allmark-Kent 124
chapter to indicate that Seton and Roberts represented their animal
protagonists as intelligent, autonomous individuals. Hence, I will now consider
some of the more complex, and potentially more controversial, cognitive abilities
that they attribute to their animals such as learning and communication, before
sketching a final overview of their depictions of animal intelligence. I will re-
contextualize a few core examples by
reading them alongside Romanes’ table
of emotional and cognitive development. As should be clear from my summary
of his work in the previous, Seton
’s and Roberts’ protagonists are likely to be in
accordance with
Romanes’ criteria. Therefore, we should not be surprised (nor
should we declare them anthropom
orphic) if they are capable of ‘reason,’
learning, and an array of complex emotions.
Anecdotes and Evidence
As I have discussed, Roberts sketches a history of animal representation
in his preface to
Kindred
but also gives an account of both the growing popular
and the scientific interest in animal minds. Echoing the observations made by
Romanes in his preface to
Intelligence
, Roberts acknowledges the early
curiosity of amateurs and pet-
owners who “were observing, with the wonder and
interest of discoverers, the astonishing fashion in which the mere instincts of
these so-called irrational creatures were able to simulate the operations of
reason” (22). Like Romanes, he emphasizes the relationship between these
observations and the establishment of anecdotal evidence for animal
intelligence:
The results of this observation were written down, till
‘anecdotes of
animals’ came to form a not inconsiderable body of literature. The drift of
all these data was overwhelmingly toward one conclusion. The mental
processes of the animals observed were seen to be far more complex
than the observers had supposed. (22)
Allmark-Kent 125
The narrative Roberts constructs is so similar to the early history of comparative
psychology that the on
ly omission seems to be Romanes’ name. He continues
this account by explaining that, although some observations were dismissed as
instinct or coincidence, there still remained
a “great unaccounted-for body of
facts,” and thus
men were forced at last to accept the proposition that, within their varying
limitations, animals can and do reason. As far, at least, as the mental
intelligence is concerned, the gulf dividing the lowest of the human
species from the highest of the animals has in these later days been
reduced to a very narrow psychological fissure. (23)
The language and ideas Roberts uses indicate, quite plainly, that the basis for
his understanding of animal psychology lies in the work of Darwin and
Roma
nes; there is no hint of Morgan’s canon here, for instance. He also adds
the qualification, “in these latter days,” demonstrating that it is indeed the post-
Darwinian, late nineteenth-century emergence of interest in animal minds to
which he is referring. Indeed, he describes this change at length: “We have
suddenly attained a new and clearer vision. We have come face to face with
personality, where we were blindly wont to predicate mere instinct and
automatism” (24). Crucially, however, he constructs the author as a valid
contributor to this otherwise scientific endeavour:
Our chief writers of animal stories at the present day may be regarded as
explorers of this unknown world, absorbed in charting its topography.
They work, indeed, upon a substantial foundation of known facts. They
are minutely scrupulous as to their natural history, and assiduous
contributors to that science. But above all they are diligent in their search
for the motive beneath the action. (24)
As he ide
ntifies “the psychology of animal life” as the primary concern of the
genre, he creates the potential for a writer of wild animal stories to become an
active, legitimate participant (24).
By emphasizing that we have so far “grope[d] our way” toward “the real
psychology of animals” by “deduction and induction combined” (24-5), he also
Allmark-Kent 126
identifies a space of the ‘unknown’ in which the writer may speculate and
imagine what we cannot
know.
Citing Seton’s story “Krag, the Kootenay Ram”
as an example of such
work, he asserts: “The field of animal psychology so
admirably open is an inexhaustible world of wonder. Sympathetic exploration
may advance its boundaries to a degree of which we hardly dare dream” (28). It
is necessary to recognize here that Roberts is positioning the wild animal story
in a facilitating role
—opening both the animal mind and the field of animal
psychology for the reader
—and not as a replacement for scientific investigation.
Sympathetic exploration can imagine the lives of animals in a way that natural
history or animal psychology alone cannot. Yet, it cannot authenticate possible
knowledge in the same way as either discipline. It is clear that Roberts
envisages reciprocal communication between the wild animal story and animal
psychology, yet (as discussed in another chapter) the distance between science
and literature at the beginning of the twentieth century could not facilitate such a
relationship. Although Romanes d
ied in 1894, prior to the genre’s peak
popularity and long before the Nature Fakers controversy, we might infer that he
would not have encouraged such contributions from popular writers. Surely this
was just the unscientific approach to animal psychology that he was resisting
with his work?
Nonetheless, Roberts’ wish for the genre was not an unfounded
one. I suggest that ‘anecdotes of animals,’ to use Roberts’ phrase (22), form a
bridge between comparative psychology and the wild animal story
—a shared
foundation upon which both are built. In fact, as even his choice of words is
indicative
, anecdotes are both “data” and “literature” (22), midway between
science and stories.
Seton
’s and Roberts’ approaches to ‘evidence’ in their stories reflect their
differing relationships with wild animals. Having spent more time studying and
Allmark-Kent 127
observing animals in their own environments, Seton uses a combination of his
own experiences, the anecdotes of people he encounters (often giving details
like names, dates, and the circumstances of their meeting), and various forms
of material or archive evidence (physical objects, newspaper articles, and so
on). Significantly, Seton tends to emphasize the gathering of this evidence by
placing himself into the narrative. As a result, humans tend to feature more
prominently than usual in such stories. On the other hand, although Roberts
encountered plenty of animals in the woods of New Brunswick, he was not a
naturalist. Some stories draw on “a foundation of personal, intimate,
sympathetic observation” (
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