single nonhuman animal
must also contain a
‘submerged’ animal story.
Zoocentric re-imaginings of anthropocentric, canonical texts can reveal the
ways in which nonhuman objectification and exploitation are reinforced in
literature. Illustrating the ubiquitous but often silent presence of animals
demonstrates their speciesist depiction as
objects of utility
rather than
subjects
of a life
. Moreover, I suggest that such work could pose a striking challenge to
Allmark-Kent 235
anthropocentric literary analysis by exposing the ways in which reading animals
as ‘allegory’ and ‘metaphor’ erases their presence.
In these ways, then, I suggest that we might consider one final element
of our re-contextualization of the wild animal story. As I have demonstrated, the
majority of nineteenth-century Canadian literature depicted animals as
objects
,
rather than
individuals
. Thus, might we not think of Seton and Roberts as, in
effect, reimagining these anthropocentric texts? Are their biographies of hunted
animals not nineteenth-century Canadian hunting narratives reimagined from a
zoocentric perspective?
Of course much of the ‘recovered’ biography in
White as the Waves
is
predetermined both by Melville’s narrative and the history of Mocha Dick, but I
suggest that Baird’s imaginative speculation helps to reveal the anthropocentric
construction of the white whale’s
1
‘monstrous’ identity. His rare albinism shapes
this perception through the very fact of making him memorable and
recognizable to human eyes, that are usually unable to distinguish between
members of the same species without forming individual relationships first. His
distinctive whiteness prevents the whale’s encounters with humans being
attributed to multiple individuals. Indeed, one of the other sperm whales notes
Whitewave
’s albinism and the multiple harpoons in his body, and thinks to
himself: “
He is marked so they
[the whalers]
can find him
” (Baird 230, emphasis
original). Like Haig-
Brown’s tagged salmon, Lawrence’s white puma, or some of
Seton
’s and Roberts’ animal heroes, the white whale has an identity
imposed
upon him by human observers. This act of recognition gives these animals
1
By ‘the white whale’ I am referring to the merged identities of Mocha Dick, Moby Dick and
White-as-the-Waves, since all three share obvious essential characteristics.
Allmark-Kent 236
apparent singularity, w
hich we often signify through naming (‘Mocha Dick,’
‘Spring’ and ‘Lobo’) to stop them being seen as simply an object amongst
others. Once recognized and signified in this way, continued human observation
leads to our acknowledgement of nonhuman intelligent agency but curiously
enough, it can also lead to the belief that these observed individuals are
somehow unique
—in the white whale’s case, both more violent and more
intelligent
—than the unobserved mass of the species.
Hence, in the context of early nineteenth century whaling culture, the fact
that the white whale has seemingly survived multiple attacks transforms his
identity into something monstrous: “I see in him outrageous strength, with an
inscrutable malice sinewing it. That inscrutable thing is chief
ly what I hate”
(Melville 157). Significantly, if we compare the white whale and the white puma
with the protagonists in the other texts here, we can see that those animals are
not
sought
individually. When they are caught or killed it is by chance, and to
the hunter they are simply an object among many. This is not the case for the
puma or the whale whose human-constructed identities make them the target
for human attack. When they retaliate and are recognized,
the hunter’s mandate
changes; they are no longer hunting for personal gain, they are eliminating a
dangerous
‘man-eater’. Both the whale and the puma become tangled in an
ambiguous dichoto
my of ‘hunter’ and ‘hunted,’ epitomised by Starbuck’s famous
cry: “See! Moby Dick seeks thee not. It is thou, thou, that madly seekest him”
(528).
Although Lawrence is not reimagining any particular text, he does refer
back to stories and accounts of pumas attacking tourists, we can see that both
authors use the biographical narrative structure to demonstrate the possibility
that animals vilified as violent and dangerous, are responding to a threat posed
Allmark-Kent 237
by humans.
Seton’s story of his hunt for Lobo and his pack never postulated
any motivation beyond the wolf’s unusually high enjoyment of killing; whereas
the white puma and the white whale only begin their attacks after hunters kill
their families. The defamiliarizing effect of this speculation is strengthened in
Baird’s case through her animal-centric reversal of a canonical novel.
It is difficult to date the precise setting of
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