when,’ Nama hamo ‘when,’ maba ‘where,’ Kxoe ma ‘who, which,’ /Nu-
//en maba ‘where.’ [
SAK 384, 757, 758, UOL 71
]
Afro-Asiatic:
Proto-Afro-Asiatic *m(j) ‘what, who’; Semitic: Akkadian
m¯ın ‘what,’ mann ‘who,’ man-ma ‘whoever,’ Geez mi ‘what,’ Amharic
mìn ‘what,’ Arabic man
∼ min ‘who,’ mah-m¯a ‘whatever,’ Aramaic man
‘who,’ Classical Hebrew m¯ı; Ancient Egyptian m(j) ‘who,’ m ‘what’;
Berber: Tuareg ma ‘what,’ mi ‘who,’ Shilha ma(t) ‘who, what,’ m¯ıt ‘who’;
Cushitic: Proto-East Cushitic *ma÷ ‘what,’ Saho mi ‘who,’ m¯
a ‘what,’
Somali m´
ah.ˆ¯a ‘what,’ Oromo m´¯ani ‘what,’ -mi (interrogative particle),
Sidamo ma ‘what,’ Darasa ma ‘what,’ m¯
ata ‘who’; Omotic: Kaffa amone
‘what,’ Mocha ´
amo, Alagwa mi ‘what,’ miya ‘who’; Chadic: Hausa m`
¯
e
∼
m`
¯ı ‘what,’ Karekare mija, Margi m`ı, Bata mën, Ngala mena, Logone mini
‘who,’ Sokoro -ma (interrogative particle). [
AA 77, N 300, UOL 71, LN 300
]
314
14. Global Etymologies
Kartvelian:
Proto-Kartvelian *ma
∼ *maj ‘what,’ *mi-n ‘who,’ Georgian
ma ‘what,’ win ‘who,’ win-me ‘whoever,’ Chan mu ‘what,’ min ‘who,’
Svan maj ‘what.’ [
KA 124, 135, N 300, UOL 71
]
Indo-European:
Proto-Indo-European *mo- (base of interrogative adverbs);
Anatolian: Hittite ma-ˇsi-ˇs ‘how much,’ ma
˘
h
˘
han ‘when,’ Luwian m¯
an, Hi-
eroglyphic Hittite mana ‘if, when’; Celtic: Old Irish m´
a ‘if,’ Middle Breton
ma ‘what’; Tocharian: Tocharian A m¨
ant ‘how.’ [
N 300, EU
]
Uralic:
Proto-Uralic (Illich-Svitych) *mi ‘what,’ (R´edei) *m‰; Yukaghir me-
neme ‘something’; Samoyed: Tavgy ma ‘what,’ Yenisei Samoyed mii’, Ka-
massian mo ‘why’; Ugric: Vogul m¨
an ‘which, what,’ Hungarian mi ‘what,
which’; Finnic: Finnish mi
∼ mi-k¨a, Saami mi ∼ mˆa, Cheremis ma ∼ mo,
Votyak ma ‘what.’ [
U 54, N 300, EU, R 296
]
?Dravidian:
Kajkadi mid¯
a ‘what,’ Burgendi m¯ı, Tamil (even-)um
‘(who)ever.’ [
N 300, UOL 71
]
Turkic:
Proto-Turkic *mi ‘what,’ Chuvash m˘en ‘what,’ mi´se ‘how much,’
m˘enle ‘what kind of,’ Old Uighur mu
∼ m¨u (sentence question enclitic),
Turkish mi (sentence question enclitic). [
N 300, EU
]
Mongolian:
Mongolian -¯
u ( < *wu < *mu) (sentence interrogative), Monguor
amu
∼ ama ‘what.’ [
EU
]
Tungus:
Tungus -ma (indefinitizer), (¯eku-)ma ‘(what)ever.’ [
EU
]
Korean
mu˜
ot ‘what,’ mjet ‘how much,’ Old Korean mai ‘why.’ [
EU
]
Japanese-Ryukyuan:
Ryukyuan m¯ı ‘what,’ -mi (sentence interrogative en-
clitic). [
EU
]
Ainu
mak
∼ makanak ‘what,’ makan ‘what kind.’ [
EU
]
Chukchi-Kamchatkan:
Proto-Chukchi-Kamchatkan *m-ënqV ‘what,’ *m-
ke ‘who,’ *ma÷ ‘when,’ *miÑ ‘which,’ Chukchi mikin ‘who’, mi-k ‘where,’
Kamchadal min ‘which, what sort.’ [
EU, CK
]
Caucasian:
Proto-Caucasian *ma (interrogative particle), Chechen mila
‘who,’ Bats me. [
KA 135
]
Burushaski
mèn ‘who,’ amin ‘which,’ mèn (. . . kè) ‘who(ever).’ [
L 265
]
Yeniseian:
Proto-Yeniseian *wi-
∼ *we- ‘what.’ [
Y
]
Indo-Pacific:
Andaman Islands: Biada min ‘thing,’ Bale ming; Central
Melanesian: Laumbe mina, Reef (kele)mengge ‘this (thing)’; North New
Guinea: Nyaura mëndë ‘thing, what,’ Arapesh mane ‘what’; Southwest
New Guinea: Kati man ‘something’; Central New Guinea: Matap mina
‘what.’ [
IP 75
]
Australian:
Proto-Australian *minha
∼ *minya ‘what,’ Dyirbal minya,
Pitta-Pitta minha, Gumbaynggir minya, Malyangapa minhaga, Yota-Yota
minhe, Diyari minha. [
RD 373, 376
]
Nahali
miÑgay ‘where,’ miyan ‘how much.’ [
NA 91
]
14. Global Etymologies
315
Austroasiatic:
Munda: Kurku amae ‘who,’ Mundari ci-mae ‘why’; Mon-
Khmer: Mon mu ‘what,’ Sakai ma’, ¯
amai ‘who,’ Central Sakai m¯
o, m¯
a
‘what.’ [
NA 91, UOL 71
]
Amerind:
Almosan-Keresiouan: Kwakwala m’as ‘what,’ Mandan mana ‘who,’
matswè ‘what,’ Tutelo m˜
a÷tu ‘when’; Penutian: Siuslaw mˆınˇc, North Sa-
haptin mèÌn ‘where,’ m¯
un ‘when’ miˇs ‘how, why,’ Nez Perce mana ‘what,’
mine ‘where,’ maua ‘when,’ Patwin mena ‘where,’ Central Sierra Mi-
wok manaχ- ‘who,’ miˇcy ‘do what,’ Northern Sierra Miwok mini ‘where,’
mi-tan ‘when,’ Bodega Miwok manti ‘who,’ San Jose Costanoan mani
‘where,’ San Francisco Costanoan mato ‘who,’ Chitimacha ÷am ‘what,’
Atakapa ma ‘where,’ Choctaw mano ‘when,’ imato ‘where,’ Yuki im
‘who,’ Coast Yuki im ‘where,’ Wappo may ‘who,’ Chontal max, Yu-
catec ma-ˇs, Tzeltal maˇc’a, Jacaltec mat
s
(a); Hokan: Yana ÷ambi, East
Pomo am, Chumash muski, Cocopa makaya ‘where,’ Diegue˜
no maap
‘who,’ ma÷yum ‘when,’ maay ‘where,’ Mohave makaˇc ‘who,’ maki ‘where,’
Yuma meki, Maricopa mekyenye ‘who,’ miki ‘where,’ Akwa’ala mukat
‘who,’ Karankawa muda ‘where’; Central Amerind: Mazatec hme ‘what’;
Chibchan-Paezan: Tarascan ambe, Guamaca mai ‘who, how,’ Kagaba
mai ‘who,’ mani ‘where,’ mitsa ‘when,’ mili ‘which,’ Cacaopera ma(-ram)
‘where,’ Matagalpa man, Bribri m˜ık ‘when,’ Sumu manpat, Cabecar m˜
an˜e
‘which,’ Move ama ‘where,’ Chimila miki ‘who,’ muru ‘when,’ me-ma
‘to where,’ me-k ‘from where,’ Guambiana mu ‘who,’ Totoro man ‘how
many,’ Paez manˇc ‘when,’ manka ‘where,’ manzos ‘how often,’ mants
‘how many,’ mau ‘how,’ Cayapa muÑ
∼ maa ‘who,’ Allentiac men, Catio
mai ‘where,’ Colorado moa ‘who,’ matuˇsi ‘when’; Andean: Sek xam-
anmi ‘where,’ Jebero ma÷ ‘what,’ Cahuapana ma-e ‘what,’ impi ‘when,’
Quechua ima ‘what,’ may ‘where’; Equatorial: Guamo miku ‘what,’ Yu-
rucare ama ‘who, which,’ Tinigua mn´e’´
a ‘who,’ Yuruna mane, Paumari
-mani- (interrogative), Candoshi maya ‘what,’ Esmeralda muka, Timote
mape ‘when,’ Turiwara maape ‘when, where,’ Saliba imakena ‘when,’
Tuyoneri menoka ‘when,’ me-yo ‘where,’ Guajajara mòn ‘who,’ Guayaki
ma ‘what, how,’ Guarani mba’e ‘what,’ mamo ‘where,’ Cofan m˜
a-ni,
Maripu manu(b) ‘in which direction,’ Kandoshi maja ‘what’; Macro-
Carib: Witoto mika, Miranya mukoka ‘when,’ mu ‘whose,’ Witoto-Kaim¨
o
muka which’; Macro-Panoan: Nocten emetta ‘what,’ mequie ‘when,’ Toba-
Guazu mi ‘who’; Macro-Ge: Caraho ampo ‘what,’ man˜eno ‘when,’ ampˆ
o-
m˜e ‘which,’ Puri ya-moeni ‘when,’ Aponegicran muena ‘what,’ Cayapo
m¯
a ‘where,’ Umutina maˇsika ‘where,’ matuni ‘why,’ Kr˜eye men˜
o ‘who,’
ampˆ
o-ny ‘why,’ Botocudo mina ‘who.’ [
AM: G103, AMN
]
316
14. Global Etymologies
18 PAL ‘2’
Niger-Congo:
Temne (kë)bari ‘twin,’ Mano pere ‘2,’ Nimbari bala, Daka
bara, Proto-Bantu *b`
ad´ı
∼ *b`ıd´ı ‘2,’ *b´ad`ı ‘side.’ [
NC 48, KS 76, UOL 92,
BA III: 21, 22, 43
]
Nilo-Saharan:
Nubian bar(-si) ‘twin,’ Merarit w´ırre ‘2,’ Kunama b´
aar`e ‘2,’
ib¯
a ‘twin,’ Maba mbar ‘2,’ Mesalit mbarr´
a, Tama warri, Baka br¯
ue, Ilit
ball-ame. [
ES 119, KS 76, UOL 92, NSB
]
Afro-Asiatic:
Omotic: Kafa bar¯
a ‘other,’ Mocha baro, Dime bal; Cushitic:
Saho baray ‘2
nd
,’ Oromo b´ıra; Chadic: Proto-Central Chadic *(kV-)bwVr
‘2.’ [
VB
]
Indo-European:
Proto-Indo-European *pol ‘half, side’; Indic: Sanskrit
(ka-)palam ‘half’; Albanian pal¨e ‘side, part, pair’; Slavic: Old Church
Slavic pol˘
u ‘side, half,’ Russian pol ‘half.’ [
IE 802, 986, IS 356
]
Uralic:
Proto-Uralic (Illich-Svitych) *p¨
al¨
a
∼ pole ‘half,’ (R´edei) *p¨al¨a ‘half,
side’; Samoyed: Yurak Samoyed peele ‘half,’ Selkup pèle, Kamassian pjeel
‘half, side’; Ugric: Hungarian f´el
∼ fele ‘half, (one) side (of two),’ Vogul
p¨
a¨
al ‘side, half’; Finnic: Saami bælle
∼ bæle ‘side, half, one of a pair,’
Mordvin pel
‘side,’ pele ‘half,’ Votyak pal ‘side, half.’ [
U 67, IS 356, R 362
]
Dravidian:
Proto-Dravidian *p¯
al ‘part, portion,’ Tamil p¯
al ‘part, portion,
share,’ Malayalam p¯
al ‘part,’ Kannada p¯
al ‘division, part,’ Tulu p¯
alu‹
‘share, portion, part,’ Telugu p¯
alu ‘share, portion,’ Parji p¯ela ‘portion.’
[
D 4097, IS 356
]
Indo-Pacific:
Andaman Islands: Biada (ik-)p¯
a¯
ur(-da) ‘2,’ Kede (´ır-)p¯
ol,
Chariar (n´er-)p´
ol, Juwoi (r´
o-)p¯
a¯
ur; New Guinea: Ndani bere, Sauweri
pere; Tasmanian: Southeastern boula
∼ bura, Southern pooalih. [
T 331,
VB
]
Australian:
Proto-Australian *bula ‘2,’ Proto-Pama-Nyungan *(nyuN)palV
‘(you) two,’ *pula ‘they two,’ Ngiyambaa bul¯
a ‘one of a pair.’ [
RD 356, BB
7, 31
]
Austroasiatic:
Proto-Austroasiatic *÷(m)bar ‘2’; Munda: Santali bar, Kha-
ria (u-)bar, (am-)bar ‘you two,’ Juang ambar, Remo ÷mb¯
ar ‘2’; Mon-
Khmer: Khmu’ b¯
ar, Bahnar ÷bar, Jeh bal, Old Mon ÷bar, Old Khmer
ber, Sakai hmbar, Khasi ¯
ar, Riang (k-)¯
ar, Palaung ¯
ar
∼ a, par ‘you two,’
Temiar bër(-nar) ‘2,’ Central Nicobarese ˜
a. [
PB 135, UOL 94
]
Miao-Yao:
Proto-Miao-Yao *(a)war
∼ *(ë)wër ‘2,’ Proto-Miao *way
(< *war), Proto-Yao *(w)i. [
PB 415
]
Daic:
Mak wa ‘twin,’ Ong Be von ‘2.’ [
PB 415
]
Austronesian:
Proto-Austronesian *kë(m)bal
∼ *(Ñ)kë(m)bar ‘twin,’ Ja-
vanese k˘ebar ‘doubled,’ k˘embar ‘twin,’ Motu hè-kapa ‘twins,’ Roro aka-
bani ‘8’ (= 4-pair). [
AN 76, WW 227, PB 415
]
14. Global Etymologies
317
Amerind:
Penutian: Wintun palo(-l) ‘2,’ Wappo p’ala ‘twins,’ Atakapa hap-
palst ‘2,’ Huave apool ‘snap in two’; Chibchan-Paezan: Chiripo bor ‘2,’
Xinca bial
∼ piar, Bribri bul ∼ bur, Cacaopera burru, Sanuma -palo
(repetitive), polakapi ‘2,’ Cayapo pal
j
u, Colorado palu, Atacame˜
no poya;
Andean: Quechua pula ‘both,’ Aymara paja ‘2,’ Yamana sa-pai ‘we-2’ (sa-
= ‘thou’), Yahgan (i-)pai ‘(we) two’; Macro-Tucanoan: Tuyuka pealo ‘2,’
Wanana pilia, Desana peru, Yupua apara, Proto-Nambikwara *p’¯
al(-in),
Catuquina upaua, Hubde mbeere, Ticuna peia; Macro-Ge: Caraho pa-
‘we-2-inc.’ [
AM 262, AMN
]
19 PAR ‘to fly’
Niger-Congo:
Proto-West Sudanic *pil ‘to fly,’ Serer fol, Same pere, Ewe
fl`
o ‘to jump,’ Yoruba f`
o ‘fly,’ Grebo fri, Igbo f´e, Ijo fin. [
KS 32
]
Nilo-Saharan:
Dinka par ‘to fly,’ Nubian fire ‘to flutter,’ Teso a-poror ‘to
fly,’ Teda bur-ci ‘to jump,’ Songhai firi ‘to fly,’ Ik por-òn, Maasai -biri,
Majang pir. [
KS 32, NSD 27, UOL 193, KER, HF 12
]
Afro-Asiatic:
Omotic: Proto-Omotic *pyaRR ‘to fly’; Ancient Egyptian p÷
‘to fly, flee’; Semitic: Aramaic parr ‘flee,’ Arabic farra, South Arabian
ferfir ‘wing,’ Amharic barrara ‘fly away, flee’; Cushitic: Beja f¯
ar ‘jump,
hop,’ Boyo firy ‘flee’; Berber: Shilha firri to fly,’ Ait Izdeg afru; Chadic:
Ankwa p’¯
ar ‘jump,’ Angas piar ‘jump, leap,’ Buduma fër ‘fly, jump.’
[
CS 366, AA 32, IS 346
]
Kartvelian:
Proto-Kartvelian *p’er ‘to fly,’ Georgian p’er, Svan p’er; Proto-
Kartvelian *prin ‘to fly,’ Georgian prin
∼ pren, Mingrelian purin, Chan
purtin. [
KA 152, 190, IS 346
]
Indo-European:
Proto-Indo-European *(s)per ‘to fly’; Indic: Sanskrit par-
n.´a ‘feather’; Iranian: Avestan parëna ‘feather, wing’; Slavic: Old Church
Slavic peroª ‘to fly,’ pero ‘feather.’ [
WP II: 21, IE 850, IS 346, EU
]
Uralic:
Yukaghir perie ‘feathers,’ perienze ‘feathered,’ perie´
n ‘have wings’;
Proto-Uralic *parV ‘to fly’; Ugric: Ostyak pòr
∼ pur ‘to fly.’ [
IS 346
]
Dravidian:
Proto-Dravidian *parV
∼ *par
¯
V ‘to fly, run, jump,’ Tamil par
¯
a
‘to fly, hover, flutter, move with celerity,’ Malayalam par
¯
akka ‘to fly, flee,’
par
¯
a ‘bird,’ par
¯
u ‘flight,’ Kota parn- ‘to fly,’ Toda p¯
or
¯
, Kannada p¯
ar
¯
‘to
leap up, run, jump, fly,’ Kodagu p¯
ar ‘to fly, leap,’ Telugu par
¯
acu ‘to run
away, flee,’ par
¯
ika ‘a kind of bird,’ Kui p¯
ask ‘to fly,’ Kuwi pr¯
ad. ‘to run
away.’ [
D 4020, NSD 27, IS 346
]
?Tungus:
Evenki h¯
ar ‘to soar.’ [
IS 346
]
Gilyak
parpar ‘to hover, fly about.’ [
EU
]
Caucasian:
Proto-Caucasian *pì
¯
rV ‘to fly,’ Proto-West Caucasian *përë,
Ubyx përë, Abkhaz pìr; Proto-Lezghian *pVr-, Udi pur, Archi parx,
Proto-Avar-Andi *par-pV-; Proto-Caucasian *p˘
a
¯
rVp˘
a
¯
lV ‘butterfly, moth,’
318
14. Global Etymologies
Proto-West Caucasian *parëpalë ‘moth,’ Proto-Lezghian *pa(r)pal- ‘but-
terfly.’ [
C 162, 167; KA 152, 190
]
Basque
pimpirina ‘butterfly’ ( < *pir-pir-).
Sino-Tibetan:
Proto-Sino-Tibetan *phur
∼ *bhur ‘to fly’; Archaic Chinese
*pjwër ‘to fly’; Tibeto-Burman: Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pur
∼ *pir ‘to
fly,’ Tibetan ’phur-ba, Central Tibetan ’phir-ba, Nung ëphr ‘to shake,’
khoÑ-phr ‘moth,’ Garo bil ‘to fly,’ Dimasa bir, ?Bahing byer, ?Abor-Miri
ber. [
ST 181, 398, NSC 152
]
?Indo-Pacific:
Baham paru-baru ‘bird,’ Kondo boro, Kare purupuru, Buna-
bun piropir ‘butterfly.’ [
FS 8, 135
]
Nahali
aphir ‘to fly.’ [
NA 59
; according to Kuiper this is a borrowing from
Kurku]
Austroasiatic:
Munda: Proto-Munda *apir ‘to fly’; Mon-Khmer: Mon pau,
Khmer par, Bahnar par, Jeh pal, Vietnamese bay. [
PB 482
]
Daic:
Tai: Proto-Tai *÷bin ‘to fly,’ Dioi bin; Sek bìl
∼ ÷bil; Kam-Sui: Proto-
Kam-Sui *pwen
∼ *bwen, Kam pen, Sui win ∼ vyen, Mak vin; Lakkia
pon; Ong-Be vin. [
PB 394
]
Austronesian:
Proto-Formosan *(maq)baR ‘to fly,’ *(mi-)pëRpëR. [
PB 394
]
20 POKO ‘arm’
?Khoisan:
Hadza upukwa ‘leg, hind leg, foot,’ ufukwani ‘thigh.’ [
BD 247, 249
]
Niger-Congo:
Dagomba boγo ‘arm,’ Gbaya baxa, Ewe abo, Zande bo,
Proto-Bantu *b´
ok`
o, Sotho le-boko ‘arm,’ ?Wolof, Gbaya buko ‘10,’ ?Mossi
piga, ?Tiv puwë, ?Grebo pu, ?Vere bo. [
KS 4, NC 44, UOL 194
]
Nilo-Saharan:
Bagirmi boko ‘arm,’ Baka baka, Berta bu´
a, Didinga iba.
[
KS 4, CN 3, UOL 194
]
Indo-European:
Proto-Indo-European *bh¯
aghu(s) ‘arm, forearm, elbow’;
Indic: Sanskrit b¯
ah´
uh. ‘arm’; Iranian: Avestan b¯azus; Armenian bazuk
‘forearm’ (a loan from Iranian languages, according to Pokorny); Tochar-
ian: Tocharian A poke ‘arm,’ Tocharian B pauke; Greek pakhus ‘elbow,
forearm’; Germanic: Old English b¯
og ‘arm, shoulder, bough,’ English
bough. [
IE 108, UOL 194
]
Dravidian:
Kurux p¯
akn¯
a ‘to take up into one’s arms,’ Malto p´
ake ‘to take
in the lap.’ [
D 4050
]
Mongolian:
Proto-Mongolian *baγu- ‘upper arm.’ [
AD 20
]
Burushaski:
Hunza bäγu ‘double armful,’ Werchikwar bäγ’o ‘taking or em-
bracing in two arms.’ [
B 65, W 38
]
Yeniseian:
Proto-Yeniseian *boq ‘hand, palm.’ [
Y 28
]
Sino-Tibetan:
Tibeto-Burman: Proto-Tibeto-Burman *pow
∼ *bow ‘arm’
(cf. English bough for a similar phonetic development). [
TB 442
]
?Indo-Pacific:
Andaman Islands: Bea pag ‘claw,’ Bale poag; Tasmanian
14. Global Etymologies
319
p¨
ogar´ena ‘shoulder’; New Britain: Sulka paaga ‘fingernail’; West New
Guinea: Baham pag; North New Guinea: Nafri faxa; East New Guinea:
Amara foka; Unclassified New Guinea: Tate faha ‘claw.’ [
IP 858
]
Nahali
boko
∼ bokko ‘hand.’ [
NA 74
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