V. Заключение
Наш мир – это совокупность парадоксов и противоречий. Обратимся к
словам Арнольда Тойнби: «противоречия между политическим
разделением мира человеческой цивилизации на локальные
суверенные государства и глобальной интеграцией в технологии и
экономике» (34). В то время как экономика, капитал, технология,
связь, транспорт и т.д. непрерывно сокращают физическое расстояние
между нами, в духовном отношении мы все больше отдаляемся.
Возможно, именно благодаря тому, что наш духовный мир не вышел
за национальные рамки, и наше общество все еще строится на основе
национального государства, поэтому, хотя глобализация прорвалась
через барьер самодостаточности регионов, однако не смогла
проникуть за стену национального самовосприятия.
Несмотря на это, в долгосрочной перспективе у нас по-прежнему есть
основания полагать, что с быстрым развитием информационных
технологий и широким применением средств массовой информации, в
плане идей люди могут найти все больше и больше общего, поскольку
разум все еще остается общим инструментом человеческого знания и
понимания мира. Это как со вступлением человеческого общества в
индустриальную эпоху, в условиях явления мультикультурализма
объективные структуры и механизмы функционирования общества все
больше сближаются, это объективная реальность и тенденция.
250
Только исходя из такой предпосылки, будет разумно говорить о
вопросе национальной философии. В частности, в рамках мышления
национальной
философии,
если
вопросы,
обсуждаемые
интеллигенцией отдельных стран, станут общими вопросами, которые
привлекают или ставят в тупик современное общество, только тогда
возможно обеспечить законную основу национальной философии. И
напротив, если национальная философия привязана к специфическим
вопросам отдельной страны, пусть она и использует общефилософские
методы в аргументации, нам будет крайне сложно включить ее в
категорию основной истории философии.
В целом, в постсоветский период энтузиазм по поводу обсуждения
вопроса национальной философии, возникший в бывших советских
республиках, показал: во-первых, хотя почти все эти новые
национальные государства стремятся к дерусификации, однако их
духовная связь с Россией явно не полностью прервана, и, наоборот, в
плане изучения легитимности независимого национального духа
намерения обоих абсолютно идентичны. Во-вторых, между ними
также существует определенное различие, у первых при установлении
национального самосознания сравнительным критерием выступает,
главным образом, Запад (вопрос в какой степени или в каких условиях
«Восток» может стать сравнительным критерием, в конце концов,
заслуживает внимания), а второй необходимо одновременно
учитывать два измерения: Запад и Россию. В-третьих, если философия
принимается в качестве уникального средства для восприятия
действительности человечеством, то, каким образом она будет
совмещена с процессом духовного строительства в этих
развивающихся национальных государствах, в которых это
совершенно новая попытка. Тем не менее, общие принципы
философии не должны быть так просто замещены национальными,
нужно найти между ними баланс, чтобы национальная мудрость могла
породить универсальные ценности.
Литература и примечания:
1. Бао Гуйчжэн. 20 лет национальной философии // Тенденции философии.
2001. № 12. С. 39-42.
2. Чжан Байчунь. Славянофильство и русская национальная философия //
Вестник Харбинского педагогического колледжа. 1996. № 4. С. 38.
3. Считается, что национализм 20-го века претерпел три кульминации: первая
привела к двум мировым войнам; вторая способствовала процессу
деколонизации стран третьего мира; третья произошла одновременно с
крутыми переменами в СССР и Восточной Европе, сопровождая процесс
251
строительства новых национальных государств.
4. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм / Пер. Хань Хуньи. Центральное
издательство по подбору и переводу. 2002. С. 5.
5. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 3.
6. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 1.
7. Сегодня некоторые исследователи истории СССР высказывают мнение о
том, что при проведении границ между различными республиками советские
власти намеренно объединили разные этнические и религиозные группы,
чтобы достичь и усилить цель политики «разделяй и властвуй».
8. Ван Чжилай. Краткая история Центральной Азии. Народное издательство.
2010. С. 277.
9. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 8.
10. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 8.
11. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 175.
12. Соуэлл Томас. Интеллектуалы и общество / Пер. Чжан Яюэ, Лян Синго. 1-
е издание. Издательство корпорации CITIC. 2013. С. 250.
13. Соуэлл Томас. Интеллектуалы и общество…, с. 250.
14. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 18.
15. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 18.
16. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 53.
17. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 18.
18. Гидденс Энтони. Национальное государство и насилие / Пер. Ху Цзунцзэ.
Издательство Санлянь. 1998. С. 45.
19. Гулыга А.В. Гердер. 2-е издание / Пер. Хоу Хунсюнь. Шанхайское
народное издательство. Октябрь, 1985. С. 66.
20. . Гулыга А.В. Гердер…, с. 55.
21. . Гулыга А.В. Гердер…, с. 101.
22. Цзу Чуньмин. Особенности построения «русской идеи». Вновь о споре
славянофилов и западников // Эпоха открытости. 2012. № 10.
23. Об изучении классического евразийства см. также Цзу Чуньмин.
Славянофильство и евразийство: Две парадигмы реконструкции русской
цивилизации // Вестник Сучжоуского университета. Издание по философии и
социологии. 2014. № 2.
24. Арендт Ханна. Истоки тоталитаризма. Издательство Санлянь. 2-е издание.
2014. С. 46.
25. См. Фэн Сянгуан. Циркуляция идеологии // Социологические
исследования. Январь, 2007. С. 2.
26. Томпсон Джон Б.. Идеология и современная культура. Издательство
Илинь. 2005. С. 34.
27. Маркс К., Энгельс Ф. Немецкая идеология. Сокр. издание. Народное
издательство. 2003. С. 43.
28. Маннгейм Карл. Идеология и утопия. Коммерческое издательство. 2000.
С. 22.
29. Геллнер Эрнест. Нации и национализм…, с. 163.
252
30. Маркс К., Энгельс Ф. Немецкая идеология…, С. 43.
31 Саид. Эдвард. Теория интеллигенции / Пер. Дань Дэсин; ред. Лу Цзяньдэ.
3-е издание. Издательство Санлянь. Октябрь, 2016. С. 17.
32. Соуэлл Томас. Интеллектуалы и общество…, С. 4.
33. Соуэлл Томас. Интеллектуалы и общество…, С. 360.
34. Тойнби Арнольд. Человечество и Мать-Земля / Пер. Сюйбо и др.
Шанхайское народное издательство. 1993. С. 725.
Philip Ogo Ujomu
THE ROLE OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE GENERAL STUDIES
PROGRAMME FOR NIGERIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS: KEY
VALUE AND RELEVANCE
Introduction: the general studies programme and the relevance of
philosophy to the vision of higher education in Nigeria
To what extent is the meaning and problems of philosophy clear to students
and scholars of the discipline despite years of teaching the course at the 100
level and 200 level as an introductory course? Let us look at the
philosophical basis of the General Studies and the teleological elements of
its philosophical studies component. The teaching of basic philosophy,
logic and human existence is a way of exposing the discipline of philosophy
to students of Nigerian tertiary institutions. Learning philosophy is a key
component of the General Studies Programme in all Nigerian universities,
as directed by the National Universities Commission (NUC). As a
coordinating body for all universities, the NUC has formulated a general
education policy to provide a broader and holistic perspective to learning.
In addition, the NUC conducts both Programme and Institutional
accreditation of universities every three to five years depending on the
success recorded by each university or programme previously. The aim of
the exercise is to assess and generally contribute to improving the quality of
higher education and learning generally. Given the above explanation, the
theoretical and practical aspects of philosophy, becomes a vital national
issue, which justifies our enquiry of whether Nigerians are truly benefiting
maximally from this concept or exercise. Do all stake holders understand
the value and key functions of philosophy, not just for higher education, but
for life in general?
The visions and values of the NUC as seen in the general studies
program
253
The General Studies curriculum is designed by the National Universities
Commission NUC to capture a set of minimum standards concerning a set
of general purpose/ interest knowledge that any Nigerian student needs to
learn and pass examinations in, before he or she can be awarded a degree of
a Nigerian university. Such general studies courses include: The Use of
English, The History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, Nigerian
Peoples and Culture, Conflict Resolution, Philosophy and Logic among
others. Suggestions have been made to incorporate topics like Topics in
Public Policy and Public Health among others to keep in tune with
contemporary issues in our world. This is important because in the context
of meeting key national developmental concerns, the general studies
curriculum of the NUC designed the architecture of the curriculum in a way
that encouraged interfacing of disciplines.
In a sense therefore the Nigeria National Universities Commission‘s (NUC)
requirement of teaching of Philosophy and Logic foreshadows the need for
a holistic view or complementary approach to general education and also
highlights the pride of place allocated to some of the humanities subjects in
the academic life of the students of all disciplines including science and
technology. Put simply, all fields have something to learn from each other
in their content and method. This is a reality of life as no man or society is
an island. Knowledge is not fixed or static. There is a constant evolution of
things in the universe. There is a need for a balanced or integrated idea of
education whereby scientific and technological knowledge needs to be
complemented by subjects having to do with world views and human
formation in order to have a complete epistemological package that can
ensure the formation of a total human person. This pushes us to revisit the
idea of the human factor in the quest for national development and
scientific –technological progress as a basis for resolving certain social
issues beyond the actual theory and practice of science and technology.
Put simply, this multidisciplinary approach is defended by some
scientifically oriented African philosophers who argued that ―the prime task
of philosophy was seen in terms of contribution to the development of
science. It was essential to have instructions in those philosophical
disciplines most likely to foster the development of scientific thought in
Africa: Logic, the history of sciences, epistemology, the history of
technology, and the history of philosophy‖ (Chachage 1994:56). Bodunrin
is eloquent on the value of some branches of philosophy when he says that
―logic has become an important field of Philosophy. It is the principal link
between philosophy and other disciplines. It provides the tool for examining
and dissecting the claims of other disciplines and philosophy itself‖
254
(Bodunrin 1991:94).
Problem: some social and cultural challenges facing an emerging African
philosophical worldview
People often wish to know: What is philosophy? What can it do? Here lies
the problem of its value and relevance to humanity. While some efforts
have been made to answer these questions, not all the answers have been
convincing or acceptable. Hence, we shall make an effort to address this
issue. On a general note every discipline, including philosophy, looks for its
own way of interrogating the basic problems encountered in the world.
These diversities of method do not block the realization that all fields are
seeking objective knowledge of our common human reality by doing
serious research whose ultimate goal is to improve human kind. This desire
to impact positively on the lives of human beings rests on a pillar of
tolerance where one field of knowledge allows others to pursue their
interests and more importantly realizes that one way of knowing is not
complete without the others both at the theoretical and practical levels.
If this is the case, then the success of even the scientific fields then depends
irrevocably on the appreciation of the meaning and value of things in the
world, construed as the natural World that human beings met in existence,
as opposed to the social ‗worlds‘ created by humans. There is a need for a
supplementary or complementary view of the aspects of the world as we
experience it. We live in a world that contains a lot of things known and
unknown, physical and non physical. We are bothered by the need to think
deeply and thoroughly, ask questions and attempt to proffer answers to
these complexities. The belief is that we as human beings and especially in
Nigeria require philosophy in order to be able to examine the intellectual
foundation of our lives, to understand the nature of man and justice.
Philosophy, if it does nothing at all, focuses on the development of the
minds and thoughts of people in general. In targeting the human mind,
philosophy improves the way people think or reason. The way people think
affects positively or negatively the way they live as human beings and how
they relate with others. Through thinking the human being becomes
involved in the life of society by way of making a contribution to social
ideas and practices in order to guarantee peace, security and social order.
Some African philosophers have identified certain gaps and concerns
arising from our inherited way of thinking and acting as Africans. This
raises issues about our traditions; how we generate meaning and transmit
our knowledge and experiences from one human generation to another. In
what ways can useful philosophical values be handed down to human
beings. This links up with concerns over the development of
255
philosophically oriented disposition given that most people in the
contemporary Nigerian society may not have easily imbibed some of the
basic values of philosophy notably- independent thinking, tolerance, critical
and balanced view of issues- can be imbibed. There is still ethnic, political
and religious bigotry, intolerance, discrimination, sexism, political and
financial corruption and lack of equity among groups. Also there is a lack
of discipline and disobedience to the rule of law.
The basic challenges facing most African societies are ancestral: They can
be traced to the traditional past of the Africans. These issues have continued
up to the present day African societies. These are mainly ethical and social
issues that threaten the economic, political and technological realms of life.
Kwasi Wiredu was emphatic that ―the three evils currently tormenting most
if not all African cultures and nationalities are authoritarianism, permanent
control of all aspects of life, politics included that ensues in people doing
things against their will, anachronism, systems or principles outliving their
suitability and utility, supernaturalism, the tendency to establish
supernatural foundations for a natural code of conduct‖ (Wiredu in
Kaphawagani 1998:86). Let us review authoritarianism and anachronism
and their consequences for social and political life.
Authoritarianism understood broadly in terms of hegemonic power that
certified dominance and subjugation either by singular monarchy, elitist
oligarchy or a messianic theocracy is a limitation of most African
traditional cultures. An authoritarian orientation, manifests in the demand
and legitimating of unquestioning obedience by people to the authorities of
elders. Not much room could be made for broadening of consensual
relations, allowance of deviant ideas or social practices. So little premium,
if any, was placed on ―intellectual qualities such as curiosity or
independence of thought‖ (Oladipo 1996:47). Authoritarianism understood
as subordination of ―others,‖ at best, served to maintain order in the society
at the cost of respect for individuality and openness to change and progress.
Authoritarianism generated the crisis of representation, understood as how
best power could be used to serve the interests of all or the needy members
of society, rather than merely the interest of the power holder.
When we link up the theory of authoritarianism and anachronism (inability
to change according to the exigencies of time), to the practical reality of
life, then we notice some tensions and contradictions that can lead to
developmental shortfalls. For instance, the reality on the ground in Nigeria
is that the political culture of state-centralism, top-down developmental
paradigms and other hegemonic non-participatory social engineering
instruments are the heritage of colonial capitalist hegemony with its
256
dominant paradigms of alienation and marginalization. These values have
ensured that effectual and broad-based democratic participation is at best a
mirage. Within the dominant political parties the realities of god-fatherism,
violence, conflicts, money bag politics, an absence of internal democracy
among competitors have contributed to the current instability in democratic
consolidation. The political and religious crisis leading to terrorism and low
intensity warfare in northern Nigeria is partially explained by poor
leadership, as well as a gap between established rules and their
implementation. Other gaps arise due to a perennial general corruption and
inefficiency in public service delivery, the politicization of ethnicity and
also a general citizens‘ dissatisfaction with the prevailing standard or
quality of life.
The need for philosophy
Why is philosophy needed? Can there be a philosophy for the needy? Human
beings need philosophy. A lot of the benefits of philosophy are concentrated
on the development of people's minds and thoughts. We must emphasize
that ―philosophy is deeply rooted in human life‖ (Stace 1937, 316). The
human being views himself as a central element of life generally using the
mind to generate thought and the body to perform actions. The power of
philosophy is targeted at changing the human mind – the way people think –
so that they can have clearer ideas and hence create improved ways of
achieving more productive physical action. Philosophy impacts on
physical, social and mental life through mental entities called ideas.
Viscount Samuel (1956, 199) holds that ―men‘s actions are governed by
their ideas: right ideas lead to good actions and good actions bring
welfare: wrong ideas lead to bad actions and bad actions bring suffering
and disaster.‖ Philosophy also creates and encourages values. It
encourages openness and tolerance as well as the need for us to allow
alternative ways of viewing the world. The philosopher uses the thinking
faculty in getting knowledge.
Reflection is the hallmark of the philosopher's activity. As such, the
laboratory of the philosopher is the human mind. Just as the natural scientist
does his field work in the laboratory or outside (empirically or
observationally), the philosopher does his own work inside the brain or
intellect. Moore (1935) holds that the primary value of philosophy is not a
practical but an intellectual one. We can say that ―philosophy does have a
practical value it should make us better men and women‖ (Moore 1935, 67-
68). The way people think affects positively or negatively the way they live
as human beings and how they relate with others, human and non-human.
Through thinking, the human being becomes involved in the life of society
257
by way of making contributions to social ideas and practices.
Specifically, philosophy is interested in developing a critical and logical
thinking in human beings. This mode of thinking is needed if we are to be
able to pose fundamental questions, develop arguments or proofs to explain
things in reality and break down stereotypes and prejudices arising from
existing in the world. Hence, there is a need to learn a bit about philosophy
in the course of getting a university education. Of course the details of
philosophical knowledge will be left to those who seek academic degrees in
philosophy. Let us examine some obstacles to the permeation of
philosophical values in the life of a people as a whole.
Dostları ilə paylaş: |