Some theoretical and practical implications of philosophical reasoning
for some fields of study
Let us show the value of philosophy by applying it to some of the fields of
knowledge learned in the Nigerian university, with a view to showing how
and why it is useful to the generality of university students. Philosophy is
significant in the quest for knowledge and building of tradition because, a
critical reflection on our most basic ideas is needed for an understanding of
our problems in the first place, before we proceed to talk of what is required
to solve it. There is an emphasis on rationality of thought and rationality of
action both of which are linked to our traditions. The idea of a tradition is
based on the assumption that there is some knowledge to be discovered,
sustained, criticized and improved upon. A society‘s beliefs and practices
are perpetuated by human agents who are the bearers of the way of life to
be bequeathed to successive generation. Philosophy struggles to interrogate
our cherished beliefs and assumptions in the different fields of knowledge
all with a view to clarify and improve their conceptual and practical
foundations.
Is the logic of scientific reasoning tenable or infallible?
Let us start first with the logical foundations or architecture of scientific
reasoning in the natural sciences. In logic and philosophy of science,
philosophers come into the discussion by teaching induction and deduction
as types of reasoning or ways of making arguments. In induction for
instance, we move from known cases to statements about a particular
unknown case (inductive analogy) or any other unknown case ‗X‘
(inductive generalization). These are valid forms of reasoning. In science,
the world is so vast and complicated that it would be impossible and out
rightly unproductive to desire to observe all known cases before a universal
law is made. So a universal law of science is made on the basis of an
induction that every other unobserved case which appears like the observed
and tested case, will be the same as the observed fact. Hence, we have a law
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of a regularity and uniformity in nature. Here, the philosopher comes into
the discourse in another way by asking the million dollar question: Will the
future always be like the past? Does the fact that the sun rose in the past,
mean that the sun will rise in the future? How can we be sure of the
regularity (factual or logical) of things in nature? Can nature or science
itself be predicted and controlled?
Do the social sciences produce objective or value laden knowledge?
Secondly, let us look at the issue of value judgments and objectivity in the
social sciences. Here, we look at the problem of values, value judgments
and objectivity in the social sciences. One way of entering the discussion is
to say that the social sciences claim to be scientific while handling social
issues meaning that there is a sense in which the complexity,
unpredictability and created nature of the human experience can be collated,
systematized and subjected to a scientific study. Is this really the case? In
fact, it seems that the social sciences claim to be ‗scientific‘ in two distinct
senses that have separate and profound teleology or consequences. John
Stuart Mill holds that the social sciences are scientific because they are an
off shoot of the natural sciences and are subordinate to the natural sciences
(Lessnoff 1988: 785-793). So the social sciences derive or borrow the form
of science from their big brother or predecessor the natural sciences. Thus
they both share in the core qualities of scientific method. As such, if there
are laws of nature and man is a part of nature then there are laws affecting
human beings as natural things. This makes perfect sense, though some
issues can be brought up about the claims of the predictability and
reliability of a purely materialist (economic or biological) view of human
nature. Issues will also arise about the ‗laws‘ of the evolution and operation
of human society. The diversity and complexity that we experience in
human and societal behaviour causes us to raise questions.
Let us grant that nature and humans are subject to certain laws for a
moment so as to allow a reentry into the discussion. On the other hand
Wilhelm Dilthey says that the social sciences are scientific but they are
essentially different from the natural sciences and are not the same. The
natural sciences deal with the world as it is; the world as we met it or
inherited it from nature; the world as it has always existed. However, the
social sciences deal with a created world; the world as made by human
beings for humans; a world which has been imbued with genius, creativity
and above all values (Lessnoff 1988: 785-793). The created world is a new
addition to reality. So the conception of ‗science‘ varies with regard to the
type of ‗world‘ we are discussing hence raising some definitional and
conceptual concerns that in turn focus on the non factual realms of life.
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Other than facts, there are values, perceptions, biases, prejudices, beliefs,
etc, in the world and all of these have real effects on human existence. We
can compare the destructive effects of concepts and ideas (Nazism,
apartheid, racism, slavery, etc,) with the physical effects of disease
pathogens (bubonic plague, malaria, small pox, HIV-AIDS, etc,) on human
beings at the teleological levels. This also makes sense to us.
Why are facts and values important to human life?
Another level of the discourse is the question about the notion of value. We
may say simply that values are things we desire; things we choose or prefer;
things that are important; things that are of interest to us. Some things can
be desirable but not necessarily important. Some things can be interesting
but not important. Some things can be important but are neither desirable
nor interesting. Some things can be both important and desirable but not
interesting. These are the twists and turns. At another level, facts are either
the thing as it is in the world; the actual state of affair or the statement about
the thing as it is in the world. Are facts always physically verifiable before
they can be true or practically useful? The statement ‗there is a cat on the
table‘ is verifiable. It is different from the statement ‗the dust on planet
Pluto are dark colored as seen by human eyes‘. This other statement is
verifiable only in principle. This is different again from the statements; ‗the
highest mathematical integer is an abstract number‘ or ‗a female bachelor is
a spinster‘ or ‗an unmarried girl is an unmarried girl‘. These statements are
a priori, analytical and tautological respectively. They do not necessarily
mean the same thing(s).
At a different level, a value judgment is a statement that expresses our
interest or preference. It is value-laden. It is not objective. It depends on a
(cultural, historical, biological or epistemological) perspective or viewpoint.
It is possible for perspectives to differ. Based on the above, some critical
questions arise: Are the social sciences value judgmental? If they are does
this quality detract from the contribution they are making to knowledge?
Are the social sciences objective? If they are objective, are the social
sciences as objective as the natural sciences? Must the social sciences be
objective before they can be truly scientific? How many senses or phases of
scientific do we have? Is there a place for public morality in the affairs of
the state or public life? Granted that values are part of existence, why do
some assume that to be value-laden may be adverse to a discipline? These
are the sorts of concerns that philosophy bothers itself with and why other
disciplines need to study philosophy.
In what ways can political philosophy establish a scientific approach to
organizing human society?
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Again, let us also examine the contributions of philosophy to political
theory, politics and social life and the study of politics as an intellectual
concern. We may ask a question that has bothered human beings from the
beginning of history. Is morality separate from politics? Is there a right
pattern of political behaviour? Are morals and politics connected in some
way that could be of benefit to human beings? What is the end of the use of
power? All through the history of man and political philosophy, people
have always sought what they consider as the most suitable political ideas
and systems of social life that can improve the condition of human beings in
the society. Human beings have always been faced with the basic problems
of liberation and transformation. In contemporary Africa, people are faced
with a lot of man-made and natural problems such as wars, economic
stagnation, diseases, low quality of life, ethnic conflicts, oppressive and
tyrannical political regimes and structures. The immense value or
significance of political philosophy for the African world is seen in the
urgent challenges of searching for viable and stable conceptions of society,
social order and a sense of community.
These questions suggest that there may be certain types of political action
that can enhance human conduct for peace, progress, security and justice
and there are other types of action that may decrease the value and
enjoyment of human life and yield chaos, repression, lack of human dignity
and instability. They imply that our responses to political events and
challenges, hence, exerting a great influence on human action especially
when we start from some basic assumptions of human nature and try to
build a theory of the way things are and how they ought to be. The concern
about human nature in politics is easily seen in the focus on issues of
corruption, the public exercise of power, and man‘s relations with the state
and other men as seen in the age old questions of justice, and class struggle.
These are the basic concerns of social and political philosophy.
Political and social philosophy has always been defined by a collection of
questions.
1. What should be the goal of political activity?
2. How should man live his life in the state?
3. Why should man obey or recognize the state?
The value of political philosophy rests on the conceptualization of the
nature and form of social order as a way of organizing the scheme of social
relations. These relations focus on the clarification of the functions, roles,
benefits, burdens and responsibilities of the members of society.
The need for a theory of social order for human social organization
Philosophy can be relevant to social development by helping us to review
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or revise some of our models of human society as places where we can
realize our fullest humanity in a fair, just, equitable and humane manner.
Social order refers to the social systems and schemes of social relations that
define the political, economic and social roles, rights and duties of people in
a society. It is the sum of all the human arrangements, values, rules, norms,
regulations, ideologies and institutions that enhance the proper functioning
of the various parts of the society or community (Ujomu 2001:6). Social
order is a set of arrangements put in place by man in order to attain certain
important ends like justice, peace, self and group actualisation as well as the
general well-being of all in a social system. Social order arises out of the
need to balance the conflicts and interplay of interests existing among
individuals and between individuals and the society. It means that a
community or society will possess a framework that defines rules, roles and
functions of its members (Ujomu 2001:7). Social order is akin to a skeleton
that supports a body, a scheme of social relations or a social system that
underlies our real life actions as members of a society.
A most important goal of social order is to achieve the security, protection,
safety, defense and preservation of the lives and property of people in a
society. Every society or country can use this empirical parameter to award
itself a pass or fail mark or score. It can use this rule or principle to decide
the humaneness and efficiency of its institutions and policies. The
protection of lives and property is the central goal of social order because;
society cannot survive for long in any meaningful sense if the safety of life
and property is not maintained (Ujomu 2004: 26). This goal is assured by
identifying and distributing properly certain roles, rights, duties and benefits
that accrue from effective social co-existence among people. (Ujomu 2001:
247, Ujomu 2004: 12).
Is there a place for morals and justice in the affairs of the international
system?
Let us look at some philosophical issue of propriety and justice in
international studies. There are concerns about how societies do, or should
behave towards one another? Should behaviour be guided by realism or
idealism? This question is important given the history of slavery,
colonialism, wars, genocide and oppression among countries and the issues
about right and wrong behaviour its raises? If there are two societies- A and
B, and each has met the conditions P, Q, R, S, for acquiring a product Y,
why should some societies approve of ‗A‘ and deny ‗B‘ acquiring the same
material? Good examples of the above, can be seen in the conflicts between
USA and North Korea, and USA and Iran over nuclear technology
development. We may therefore ask; what is the prevailing ―morality‖ in
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international politics? We can ask the philosophical question of: ―What are
the ethical and political consequences of adopting‖ ( West 1985:267) certain
cultural and political practices? In some quarters, it has been taken as a
truism that ―the name of the game in international politics is power, and
there are no moral rules in this game, only the ―rules‖ dictated by prudential
self-interest‖ (Aiken 1982:95). We are interested in the idea of ―power as
domination, as the ability to control or command‖ (Litke 1992: 176).
There is a profound connection between power and justice. As Morgenthau
(1974) puts it, ―the object of somebody‘s power opposes that status in the
name of justice, and the holder of power justifies it, also in the name of
justice. The real issue arises between power and its victim or between
power and power, each claiming justice for its cause‖ (Morgenthau 1974:
163&166). This turbulent aspect of power is undoubtedly one of the
greatest challenges facing humans in their unending quest for justice.
The primary logic of the establishment and sustenance of political
community at all levels ought to be to define the ways by which individuals
(persons or states) can rise above a primordial self-interestedness. The
global vision of ‗might is right‘ in so far as it derives from either a view of
international justice as either conquest or contract, will not be tenable as a
global philosophy for a peaceful harmonious order. Hence, one view of a
philosophical study of justice among countries on a global scale can allow
for another way of looking at issues in international studies. Prudential self
-interest is the character of egoism and manipulation in dealing with others.
It bears restating that ―no nation, no people, no society can achieve and
indefinitely retain power, prosperity, influence, and leadership except on
the basis of a sound and unshakable moral standard‖ (Greene 1961:381). A
moral standard is a principle of right and wrong action from reason that all
can agree upon as acceptable to uphold and which serves the good of all in
certain circumstances; a view with a superior logic that all right thinking
persons can respect?
Paton (1942:293) made it clear that ―those who say that politics has nothing
to do with morality are explicitly denying the doctrine that part of life,
namely life as a statesman, is exempt from all moral obligation.‖ Is it the
case that the public realm, political affairs at any level can be devoid of
morality or some basic principle of fair play and respect for the interests of
others? This claim if answered in the affirmative should really be a source
of worry for any state. The main reason is that it erodes the possibility of
reciprocal obligations, slows the reconciliation of interests as well as erases
the baseline of acceptable norms. The repercussions of this position of
affirming ‗no moral obligation at all‘ may well lead to individual and
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collective mistrust and will make cohabitation impossible. The global
philosophy of justice currently perpetrated by the leading countries is:
―Justice is nothing else than the advantage of the stronger‖ (Johnson
1985:37). This view lends credence to the idea that rulers (national or
international) rule in their own self-interest. We know from history that ―the
source of all instability in the community lies in the fact that rulers tend to
think first of their own families or property interests‖ (Laing 1933:412).
Are there ethical implications of creating and using robotic systems?
Let us look at robotics in the applied sciences. To start with, it seems apt to
presume that concerns in some engineering fields may not be within the
province of philosophical reflections. However, philosophers can consider
issues in mechanical and electronic engineering from the ethical or even
political viewpoint of robotics which raise questions about ethical
responsibility and social control. First, robotics or the building and use of
unmanned machines to perform functions hitherto done by humans, has
assumed a vital role in recent modern warfare raising issues about the roles
of ethics and politics in the application of machines. Pioneering work in this
aspect of life started during the World Wars.
Robots have been used by man for domestic (washing machines), industrial
(aircraft and automobile manufacturing) and financial purposes (Automated
Teller Machine [ATM]) among others. Our focus is on those robots that
arouse debate or controversy such as military drones, etc. Today, we have
robotic unmanned fighting and reconnaissance planes and helicopters
(popularly called drones), robotic ground fighting vehicles, bomb detection
and disposal robots used by anti-terrorism institutions, etc. These are
experimented on, and produced by the USA, China and most of the
European nations. In fact some of the more organized terrorist groups now
use drones to perpetrate terror. The philosophical question here is, when
these robotic agents become fully autonomous, who will be responsible in a
case of mechanical malfunction or error in judgment on the part of these
machines? What happens if the error leads to massive loss of human and
material resources? Will these warfare robots understand and obey the rules
of war prosecution; the Geneva Convention, conditional or unconditional
surrender, rules of engagement, peace keeping, humanitarian intervention
and other terminologies and classifications that are currently in use? Will
the war robots be able to make a fine and effective voluntary decision in
critical moments of crisis between enemy combatants, friendly soldiers,
civilians, refugees, terrorists and hostages, etc? Who will be responsible if
these robots of war are sold to terrorists, drug dealers, organized crime
syndicates, fraudsters, etc?
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Are there ethical implications of emerging modern posthuman
systems?
Philosophers may reexamine the purview of the interfaces between the
environmental and applied sciences, through the concept of post humanism
or the belief that there is a new emerging life form that arises ontologically
from the connection between man and machines as separate beings or life
forms which is known as the post human. Biologist, philosophers,
psychologists and engineers are interested in this area of knowledge. The
post human as a construct, is distinct in its actions and capabilities as a life
form and is fundamentally different from a purely machine based life or a
purely human life. This is a consequential way of looking at the modern
blend of human- machine life raising issues about the value of the
previously distinct human and machine life forms.
More importantly, there are questions about the social, ethical, political and
technological possibilities envisaged by the human machine interface as
post -human experience. Some examples may include new forms of human-
automobile or human-aircraft relations, bionics and regenerative
interventions in human health experience even the effects of travelling in
outer space on men and machines. For instance, latest airplanes built for
war have been built to link up with or conform to human nature or feelings
responding to natural instincts such as the slightest movement of the body,
eyes, anger, etc. Some latest cars have been built to respond to voice, thumb
prints, retina scans as well as environmental conditions such as darkness,
weather changes, speed and traction control among others. Some cars even
have override capabilities to stop the car from being damaged when human
judgment is found to be in error, such as in over speeding, proximity to
other objects and navigation, etc.
There are critical and fundamental questions from the philosophers about
who is in control? Who is ultimately responsible for logic and causality?
When or if there is a problem or error created by a man-machine relation
where the machine is the dominant partner what happens? How does this
relation affect the assumption that the human being or human nature is
unique? Is it possible that human will progressively become more
mechanized just as machines can become progressively more humanized?
What happens if there is a conflict of interest? Is it not possible that
machines can attain a life of their own or gain superiority over humans in
this new post human arrangement? What happens in such a situation with
regard to the present structure of things in the world with a view to ethical
responsibility?
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