Results
For 1,443 medical admissions that received
IV heparin for at least 24 hours, the median
age was 70 years, 50.5% were men and the
crude mortality was 3.7%. An aPTT was not
done within 24 hours of starting IV heparin
infusion in 15.0% of cases. Of all cases, 82%
were admitted within 15 disease conditions,
with the five most common causes of admis-
sion being non-hemorrhagic stroke, acute
myocardial infarction, heart failure, pulmo-
nary embolism and arrhythmia.
Approximately 1 in 5 cases and 1 in 3
cases were sub-therapeutic at 6 and 24 hours,
respectively. At 6 and 24 hours the percent of
cases in the therapeutic category increased
from 27.0% to 35.7% and those in the supra-
therapeutic category decreased from 32.8%
to 14.5% (Figure 1).
By the fourth hospital day 90.2% of cases
were started on IV heparin infusion. Cases
were further stratified by those started on IV
heparin infusion within 4 days and beyond
4 days from admission. Cases on heparin
beyond 4 days had a significantly higher ratio
of actual to predicted mortality within each
aPTT category and a higher ratio of actual to
predicted LOS that was not significant (Table
1). Differences were also noted with bleeding
or other complications.
Given these differences and to account
for a more homogenous population, further
analysis was done for cases started on IV
heparin infusion within 4 days of admission.
Results for these cases showed that the actual
Table 1. Outcomes for heparin start day
†
medical cases only
Figure 1. aPTT results at 6 and 24 hours medical cases only
Sub-therapeutic
Cases
(%)
Therapeutic
Above therapeutic
Supra-therapeutic
33.3%
19.6%
27.0%
35.7%
16.5%
20.6%
14.5%
32.8%
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
6 hour
24 hour
† Mortality and LOS recalibrated for all medical cases receiving heparin in ≤ and > 4 days* excluding deaths, ^ p < 0.05
Sub therapeutic
Therapeutic
Above
therapeutic
Supra
therapeutic
≤ 4 days > 4 days ≤ 4 days > 4 days
≤ 4 days > 4 days
≤ 4 days > 4 days
Cases (n)
360
49
413
25
182
20
165
13
Actual LOS (avg)*
7.3
18.0
5.8
13.5
5.8
13.1
6.1
11.8
Predicted LOS (avg)*
7.5
8.3
6.6
8.7
6.6
7.8
6.7
7.3
Ratio act/predict LOS
0.97
2.17
^
0.88
^
1.55
^
0.88
^
1.67
^
0.90
^
1.62
^
Mortality %
4.7
12.2
3.1
16.0
1.6
0.0
1.2
15.4
Predicted mortality %
4.3
6.7
3.3
5.5
3.2
4.4
2.8
5.1
Ratio act/predict
mortality
1.11
1.82
0.95
2.93
0.52
0.00
0.44
3.04
Bleeding diagnosis code
13.9
26.5
11.6
28.0
12.1
35.0
12.1
7.7
Transfusion
procedure (%)
8.3
2.0
6.1
12.0
5.5
0.00
7.9
0.0
Thromboycytopenia (%)
6.9
14.3
6.3
16.0
2.7
15.0
3.0
23.1
Decreased
hemoglobin (%)
26.1
46.9
23.2
36.0
18.1
45.0
17.0
38.5
Executive Summary Conference Report
36
9th Invited Conference: Improving Heparin Safety
LOS was higher for sub-therapeutic cases than
for all other aPTT groups combined (7.3 days
vs. 5.9 days, p < 0.05). The ratio of actual to
predicted LOS was higher for sub-therapeutic
cases (1.07, p=0.12) than for all other aPTT
groups combined (0.96, p = 0.07) (Table 3).
Although these actual to predicted results did
not reach statistical significance, there may
be a trend in the direction of the ratio that
indicates that sub-therapeutic cases have a
higher LOS.
The results of regression analysis of risk
factors for bleeding or other complications
showed that severity of illness on admission
(OR = 2.55) and cases started on heparin
beyond 4 days (OR = 2.55) had significantly
higher rates of bleeding or other complica-
tions (Table 3).
Discussion
Results of a retrospective analysis of four-
hospital data found that sub-therapeutic aPTT
results were common. Even in the subset
of medical cases in which IV heparin infu-
sion was initiated early in the hospitalization
(within 4 days) these rates persist. It is note-
worthy that at 6 hours the percent of sub-
therapeutic cases (19.6%) was lower than the
percent of supra-therapeutic cases (32.8%);
however, at 24 hours the percent of sub-
therapeutic cases (33.3%) was higher than the
percent of supra-therapeutic cases (14.5%)
(Figure 1). The higher predicted mortality
of sub-therapeutic cases (Table 1) may indi-
cate that clinicians were being more cautious
with heparin dosing in patients with a higher
severity of illness. A substantial fraction of
cases (15.0%) lacked evidence of measured
aPTT.
When risk-adjusted outcomes were com-
pared, the sub-therapeutic cases had higher
ratios of actual to predicted LOS and mortality,
although the differences were not statistically
significant for cases started on heparin within
4 days of admission. Differences in complica-
tion rates between the groups appear to be
related to underlying patient severity of ill-
ness. The limitations of this analysis are the
retrospective nature of the study, hospital
specific therapeutic aPTT was not available
and bleeding was not confirmed by clinical
case review.
Conclusions
The differences observed in this analysis
may be important for hospitals evaluating
performance of IV heparin infusion protocols.
Given the outcomes and complication differ-
ences seen in this analysis, when conducting
hospital-specific analysis it may be important
to stratify cases by early and late initiation of
heparin and possibly by severity of illness.
Given the high rate of sub-therapeutic cases
at 24 hours and their associated worse out-
comes, it may be important to evaluate both
sub- and supra-therapeutic cases.
Further research should examine differ-
ences in aPTT response to understand if phy-
sician preference or patient risk characteristics
are influencing heparin therapeutic ranges
and subsequent outcomes. Hospital-specific
evaluation of aPTT response to IV heparin
infusion therapy may also provide insights to
help clinicians improve heparin use.
References
1. Melloni C et al. Unfractionated heparin dosing and risk
of major bleeding in non-ST-segment elevation acute
coronary syndromes. Am Heart J 2008;156:209-15.
2. Hirsh J, et al. Parenteral Anticoagulants. American
College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical
Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). CHEST 2008; 133:141S-
59S.
3. Fanikos J, et al: Medication errors associated with
anticoagulant therapy in the hospital. Am J Card, 2004,
94:532-5.
4. The Joint Commission. Sentinel Event. Retrieved
May 5, 2009 from http://www.jointcommission.org/
SentinelEvents/SentinelEventAlert/sea_41.htm.
5. Tabak YP, Johannes RS, Silber JH. Using automated
clinical data for risk adjustment: development and
validation of six disease-specific mortality predictive
models for pay-for-performance. Medical Care 2007;
45(8): 789-805.
Table 2. Outcomes for heparin started within first 4 days medical cases only
Table 3. Complication model for medical patients receiving heparin
Characteristic
1-SUBTHP
Groups 2,3,4†
Cases (n)
360 (32.1)
760 (67.9)
Acutal LOS (avg)*
7.3
5.9
Predicted LOS (avg)*
6.8
6.1
Ratio Act/Predict LOS
1.07 (p=.12)
0.96 (p=.07)
Mortality %
4.7%
2.4%
Predicted Mortality %
3.7%
2.7%
Ratio Act/Predict Mort
(95% CI, p value)
1.28 (0.84-2.71) p=.37
0.87 (0.61-1.50) p=.61
Total Charges (ave $)
28,389
18,876
Variable
OR (95% CI)
p
c statistic
Aggregated severity on
admission
2.55 (1.95, 3.35)
<.0001
0.8272
1st heparin order >3 days
2.55 (1.28, 5.05)
0.0075
0.8307
Above therapeutic
0.35 (0.10, 1.25)
0.1069
0.8373
No PTT
0.66 (0.26, 1.68)
0.3802
0.8382
Supra-therapeutic
0.62 (0.20, 1.92)
0.4081
0.8410
Sub-therapeutic
1.05 (0.54, 2.07)
0.8836
0.8414
Note: Therapeutic as reference
†
2 = therapeutic, 3 = above therapeutic, 4 = supra-therapeutic; * excluding deaths
PROCEEDINGS
9th Invited Conference: Improving Heparin Safety
37
Executive Summary Conference Report
A Systematic Approach to Improving
Anticoagulation Safety
Steven Meisel, PharmD, Director of Medication Safety, Fairview Health System, Minneapolis, MN
Key points
• Anticoagulation therapy is a complicated process that includes at least 51 opportunities for
failure, which can all lead to serious patient harm.
• Three principles for ensuring medication safety include designing systems to prevent errors
and harm, making errors that do occur visible to staff and having procedures in place to
mitigate harm.
• The following steps should be taken to improve the safety of heparin use:
1. Write pre-typed protocols
2. Develop a heparin dosing service
3. Use low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) rather than unfractionated heparin (UFH)
4. Use pre-mixed bags and a single concentration of heparin
5. Limit floor stock
6. Prohibit override access from automated dispensing cabinets
7. Minimize stock in pharmacy
8. Use saline flush to maintain line patency
9. Use “TALLman” lettering
10. Duplicate drug checking
11. Use anticoagulation flow sheets
12. Ensure competency of staff
13. Use smart pumps
14. Use barcoding
15. Use computer alerts/pages for high aPTT values
• By understanding the complexity of heparin therapy, managing every step and taking
action to identify and eliminate every source of error, significant progress can be made
towards achieving the goal of “do no harm.”
The medication process has seven core
steps: evaluating a patient, ordering a drug,
transcribing the order, preparing and dispens-
ing a drug, administering a drug to a patient
and monitoring patient response. There is no
single owner of this process. While physicians,
nurses, pharmacists and patients each own
certain sub-elements of the process, a safe
and effective overall process requires each
discipline to consider their role in the context
of others.
With anticoagulant therapy, there are at
least 51 opportunities for failure. A failure
at any one of the steps can lead to serious
patient harm.
Errors may include:
Evaluation:
1. Insufficient information about other
drugs a patient is taking
2. Insufficient information about past dose-
response relationships
3. Insufficient drug information
4. Insufficient laboratory information
5. Insufficient allergy, pregnancy or other
patient information
6. Incorrect diagnosis
7. Home medication lists are not reconciled
Decision:
1. Incorrect drug selected
2. Incorrect dose selected
3. Incorrect route selected
4. Parameters incorrect; too rapid of a titra-
tion schedule
5. Regimen too complex
Ordering:
1. Illegible handwriting
2. Order not transmitted to pharmacy
3. Overlapping scales
Executive Summary Conference Report
38
9th Invited Conference: Improving Heparin Safety
4. Failure to account for changing condi-
tions of diet, total parenteral nutrition
(TPN) or enteral feedings
5. Wrong route prescribed
6. Use of the letter U or other unsafe desig-
nations
7. Untimely orders (e.g. the nurse must call
the physician for orders but the time
delay is prolonged)
8. Wrong dose prescribed
Transcription:
1. Misreading of order
2. Incorrect entry into pharmacy computer
or computerized prescriber order entry
(CPOE) system due to a slip or picking
error
3. Illegible transcription
Dispensing:
1. Incorrect drug or concentration selected
2. Patient information unavailable
3. Drugs that look or sound alike
4. Label incorrect, ambiguous or applied
incorrectly
5. Infusion prepared incorrectly
6. Incorrect dose drawn into syringe
7. Incorrect mapping to automated dis-
pensing cabinet
8. Floor stocking error
Administration:
1. Improper storage and lighting
2. Look-alike labeling
3. Incorrect syringe used
4. Administered via incorrect route
5. Failure to chart correctly or in a timely
manner
6. Medication administration record
misread
7. IV pump issues:
A. Changing concentrations
B. Non-standard concentration
C. Pump programming error
D. Bag inserted into incorrect channel
E. Over-reliance on smart technology
F. Line swaps
G. Free flow pump
Monitoring:
1. Incomplete or insufficient monitoring;
patient not observed for bleeding
2. Blood tests not ordered
3. Blood tests ordered incorrectly
4. Blood test results unavailable
5. Blood test results communicated incor-
rectly
6. Mislabeled specimens
7. Fragmented care
Nolan has described three principles for
system design to improve patient safety
1
.
The first principle is to design systems
that prevent errors and harm. Knowing
that best efforts cannot prevent 100 per-
cent of all errors or harm, errors must be
made visible to staff. Finally, procedures
must be in place to mitigate harm.
Based on these principles, the following
steps should be taken with regard to
heparin.
P = prevention
M = mitigation
D = detection
16. Write pre-typed protocols (P, M). Hand-
written protocols are unquestionably
prone to error. Dosing or monitoring
parameters may be illegible, ambigu-
ous or incorrect. Different instructions
for different patients can lead to confu-
sion and patient mix-ups. Use of simple
pre-typed protocol enables pre-typed or
pre-prepared medication administration
records, eliminates handwriting prob-
lems and provides clarity and consisten-
cy for staff. A well-designed protocol also
includes clear instructions for managing
an out-of-range laboratory test or medi-
cation error.
17. Develop a heparin dosing service (P, D,
M). Despite the use of protocols, clini-
cal judgment needs to account for
the nuances of patient conditions and
dose:response relationships. Investing
accountability in a heparin dosing ser-
vice comprising a small group of highly
trained experts (usually pharmacists) can
help standardize practice while allow-
ing for patient variability. This service
also increases early detection of adverse
events and rapid intervention should an
adverse event or error occur.
18. Use low molecular weight heparin (LMWH)
(P). There is no question that LMWH is
safer than unfractionated heparin UFH).
For most clinical situations, a LMWH is as
effective as UFH and prescribing, admin-
istration and monitoring are far simpler.
Thus, conversion from UFH to LMWH will
improve the safety of anticoagulation.
The main barrier to this conversion has
been cost: the acquisition cost of LMWH
is significantly higher than UFH. A more
complete assessment shows that when
the use of IV lines, IV pumps, laboratory
testing and labor of dose changes and
related functions are taken into account,
the costs of the two products begin to
equalize.
19. Use pre-mixed bags and a single concen-
tration of heparin (P). The process of mix-
ing IV solutions is highly prone to error.
Use of more than one concentration of
heparin creates a risk that the two for-
mulations may be confused. Hospitals
39
Executive Summary Conference Report
9th Invited Conference: Improving Heparin Safety
can help reduce the risk of errors by pur-
chasing heparin in a ready-to-use form
from one of several manufacturers and
by standardizing to a single concentra-
tion for all patient populations. Under
no circumstances should IV heparin solu-
tions be prepared outside the pharmacy
department.
20. Limit floor stock (P). Emergency use of
heparin is seldom needed outside of areas
such as interventional cardiology or radi-
ology, the operating room and perhaps
the emergency department. Therefore, its
availability should be limited to carefully
selected areas of the hospital. Heparin
should be stocked in unit-of-use formula-
tions with the fewest possible strengths
and types. Other than for emergency
purposes, heparin should be dispensed
in patient-specific form directly from the
pharmacy.
21. Prohibit override access from automated
dispensing cabinets (P). Except for emer-
gency situations and the departments
described above, access to heparin
should be limited to patients with an
active order for that form of heparin. This
ensures pharmacy screening of the order
and helps reduce medication errors such
as selecting an incorrect formulation or
administering heparin to an incorrect
patient.
22. Minimize stock in pharmacy (P). Heparin
is available in many concentrations and
sizes, including vials, pre-filled syring-
es and large-volume infusion bags. The
greater the variety of products available
on the shelf, the greater the likelihood of
dispensing errors. Limiting what is avail-
able on pharmacy shelves can help to
minimize these errors.
23. Use saline flush (P). There is little, if any,
evidence that heparin is more effective
than saline for maintaining the patency
of peripheral or arterial lines. The use of
saline solution to flush lines avoids the
risk of confusing heparin formulations
and the risk of heparin-induced thrombo-
cytopenia.
24. Use “TALLman” lettering (P). There have
been many reports of mix-ups between
heparin and Hespan™ (a brand of het-
astarch). Most authorities recommend
differentiating product names by the use
of “TALLman” lettering that capitalizes
the distinguishing features of words. For
example, HEParin or HeSPAN should be
used on shelf and pharmacy labels and in
the electronic health record.
25. Duplicate drug checking (P). The pharmacy
computer software and electronic health
record should be configured to check for
duplicate anticoagulants and for drugs
such as thrombolytics that influence the
response to heparin, and to alert prac-
titioners so appropriate modifications
can be made. Checking should include
LMWH and other agents that may not
be active at the time the heparin order is
placed. For example, a one-time dose of
enoxaparin may have been administered
in the emergency department but not
be considered active when the heparin
order is written on the inpatient unit. The
system should also check for discontinua-
tion of agents that could require the dose
of heparin to be increased. Ideally, the
system will minimize nuisance alerts such
as a heparin infusion and bolus dose or a
heparin infusion and line flush.
26. Use anticoagulation flow sheets (P,D).
When multiple loading and bolus doses
are given, infusion rates may change
and laboratory tests be received up to
four times daily. Understanding dose-
response relationships or locating a
patient’s dosing history can be daunting
and lead to incorrect decisions. Use of a
flowsheet can greatly simplify the pro-
cess of adjusting dosages and reduce the
likelihood of error.
27. Ensure competency of staff (P). Heparin
use is highly complex. Safe use of this
medication requires that all practitioners
fully understand the pharmacology of
the drug, dosing considerations and the
use of site-specific systems designed to
minimize the risks of error and harm.
28. Use smart pumps (P, D). Smart pumps are
infusion devices that are designed to
deliver dosages within pre-established
parameters. The standard concentra-
tion of the drug is preloaded into the
device software along with upper and
lower dosage limits. If a nurse attempts
to infuse a dose outside these limits, the
safety software generates an alert. If a
nurse overrides an alert and proceeds
with the original programming, an icon
or other message on the pump’s screen
alerts staff that the drug is infusing out-
side of usual limits. Some smart pumps
also have hard limits—limits that can-
not be overridden. Smart pumps help to
reduce pump programming errors such
as 10-fold overdoses. However, they do
not detect programming errors within
established limits, line swaps or if a nurse
has selected heparin but hung a bag of
insulin or another medication. Despite
these limitations, smart pumps should
be considered a minimum standard for
infusing high-risk medications such as
heparin.
29. Use barcoding (P, D). Barcoded medication
administration helps detect and prevent
administration of a drug to an incorrect
patient by alerting the nurse that the
drug is not on a patient’s profile or not
due for administration. Barcoding can
also help ensure accuracy in replacing
drugs in automated dispensing cabinets
and in stocking drugs received from the
wholesaler or other sources. Barcoding
is not fool-proof and practitioners often
find ways to bypass the system; as such,
its use needs to be carefully managed
and monitored.
Executive Summary Conference Report
40
9th Invited Conference: Improving Heparin Safety
30. Use computer alerts/pages for high aPTT
(D). When an aPTT or other laboratory
test reaches a certain level, it is important
to respond in a timely fashion. Too often,
a laboratory report comes to a person
such as a unit secretary who is not in
position to take action and needs to track
down a decision-maker. In some hospi-
tals, laboratory values are automatically
sent by computer or page directly to the
decision-maker.
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