number of patients, the dissection may be limited to this area, making
detection more difficult. In addition, the cerebral vessels (especially
the brachiocephalic and left common carotid arteries) can be difficult
to image by TEE. Moreover, the celiac trunk and superior mesenteric
artery cannot be consistently imaged by TEE, and CT is considered
the gold standard for detecting complications below the diaphragm.
Last, TEE depends largely on operator skill for image acquisition
and interpretation. Reverberation artifacts, especially in the ascending
aorta, can mimic a dissection flap and result in a false-positive diag-
nosis.
156-159
Knowledge of mediastinal and para-aortic tissues (e.g.,
the hemiazygos sheath, the thoracic venous anatomy and common
anatomic variants) is essential.
3. CT.
Data from the IRAD published in 2000 showed that among
464 patients with acute aortic dissections (62% with type A), nearly
two-thirds underwent CTA as the initial diagnostic imaging. The
computed tomographic data in this study were acquired on older gen-
eration scanners, which may explain the fact that most patients under-
went several imaging tests (average, 1.8 tests).
129
A more recent IRAD publication, now including 894 patients,
showed that the ‘‘quickest diagnostic times’’ were achieved when
the initial test was CT, whereas the initial use of MRI or catheter-
based aortography resulted in significantly longer diagnostic
times.
160
Today, newer generation modern multidetector computed tomo-
graphic scanners are ubiquitous even in remote-area hospitals
throughout the United States and Europe and are usually staffed
and readily available 24 hours a day. In 2007, according to 2011
health data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, there existed 34.3 computed tomographic scanners
per million population in the United States, and 185 computed tomo-
graphic examinations were performed per 1,000 patients in US
hospitals.
Computed tomographic angiographic protocols are robust and
relatively operator independent. Computed tomographic angio-
graphic protocols that are designed to exclude dissections typically
begin with low-dose noncontrast CT to exclude the possibility of
IMH, followed by contrast-enhanced computed tomographic angiog-
raphy. The coverage includes the entire thorax, abdomen, and pelvis
to allow delineation of the extent of a flap and its extension into
branch vessels and to evaluate for end-organ ischemia (e.g., bowel
or kidneys), and possible extravasation.
1
Examples of computed
tomographic angiography are illustrated in
Figures 33 and 34
.
Diagnostic accuracy is extremely high for the exclusion of aortic
dissection (98%–100%).
122,161,162
However, false positives for the
detection of type A dissection near the aortic arch may infrequently
occur with older generation computed tomographic scanners,
which may lead to unnecessary operations.
163-166
Single-slice spiral
computed tomographic scanners and early-generation multidetector
computed tomographic scanners frequently demonstrate pulsation
artifact in the ascending aorta, which occasionally may mimic type
A dissection (pseudoflaps).
80,164,165
However, aortic pulsation
artifact and pseudoflaps can be completely eliminated with the use
Table 8
Mechanisms of AR in type A aortic dissection
1. Dilatation of the aortic root leading to incomplete aortic leaflet
coaptation
2. Cusp prolapse (asymmetric dissection depressing cusp[s] below
annulus)
3. Disruption of aortic annular support resulting in flail leaflet
4. Invagination/prolapse of dissection flap through the aortic valve
in diastole
5. Preexisting aortic valve disease (e.g., bicuspid valve)
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
Volume 28 Number 2
Goldstein et al 141
of
electrocardiographically
gated
computed
tomographic
angiographic acquisitions.
167,168
Therefore, it is advisable to use
electrocardiographic
gating
or
triggering
if
ascending
aortic
pathology is suspected.
80,167,169,170
False-positive results on CT lead-
ing to unnecessary surgery for aortic dissection have not been
reported to date with the use of newer generation electrocardio-
graphically gated multidetector computed tomographic angiographic
scans.
Surgery or transcatheter intervention in type B dissection may be
indicated if there is occlusion of major aortic branches leading to
end-organ ischemia or expansion of the aortic diameter or interval
extension of the dissection flap.
171
MDCTallows imaging of the entire
aorta and iliac system within seconds and allows delineating the
intimal flap extension into aortic arch vessels and the abdominal aorta
and its branches as well as the iliac system, which may determine the
feasibility of stent-graft repair.
170,172
Entry and reentry sites, aortic
diameters, and the relationships between true and false lumen can
be defined using multiplanar multidetector computed tomographic
reformations. MDCT also allows the determination of end-organ
perfusion, such as asymmetric or absent enhancement of kidneys in
case of renal artery occlusion.
72,167
Given the multiplanar reformation capabilities that, unlike MRI,
can be applied post hoc, and 3D imaging capabilities, CT has
extremely high retest reliability for measurement of aortic diameters
on follow-up scans. The multiplanar reconstruction capabilities facili-
tate endovascular treatment planning and may allow the determina-
tion
of
proximal
fenestrations
that
may
be
amenable
to
endovascular repair.
173
Because determination of these features is
important, reporting of the extension of dissection and aneurysms
into branch vessels and secondary end-organ hypoperfusion are
considered ‘‘essential elements’’ of aortic imaging reports.
1
Gated
MDCT may determine proximal extent of the flap into coronary
artery ostia, or the aortic valve, as well as presence of pericardial effu-
sion or hemopericardium.
168
Gated MDCT may simultaneously exclude the presence of
obstructive coronary artery disease in acute dissections,
174
as
well as coronary artery dissection and aortic valve tears.
167,170,175
In addition, combination of a gated or triggered thoracic
computed tomographic angiographic acquisition with a nongated
abdominal and pelvic acquisition is feasible at low radiation
doses.
172,176-178
Further dose reduction using axial prospective electrocardio-
graphic triggering (compared with spiral retrospective gating)
computed tomographic angiography at a tube potential of 100 kV
allows the further reduction of radiation doses without impairment
of image quality of the aorta or coronary arteries.
179
The ‘‘triple rule-out’’ protocol for assessing acute chest pain in the
emergency room is rarely needed and is neither technically suitable
nor medically necessary on a routine basis. Optimal protocols for cor-
onary CT angiography, for pulmonary embolism, and for aortic
dissection differ, and ‘‘triple rule-out’’ CT is not optimal for all three.
Given the increased radiation and contrast exposure and the lack of
accurate diagnostic data for aortic dissection, there are no grounds
to recommend triple rule-out CT for this condition. If there is a
reasonable clinical suspicion for aortic dissection, then the highest
quality study for this specific indication should be performed.
180,181
In summary, CT angiography is readily available throughout the
United States and Europe; is most often the first imaging test when
acute aortic dissection is suspected; has extremely high diagnostic
accuracy; allows the evaluation of the entire aorta and its branches,
the coronary arteries, the aortic valve, and the pericardium; and re-
sults in the shortest time to diagnosis compared with other imaging
modalities,
therefore
allowing
rapid
initiation
of
therapy.
Disadvantages of CT include the need for iodinated contrast material
and ionizing radiation, although substantial dose reductions have
recently been achieved with newer hardware technology and imaging
protocols, and this issue may be of less concern in the setting of AAS.
Figure 31
Mechanisms of AR in the setting of aortic dissection. (A) Transesophageal echocardiogram demonstrating absence of
coaptation of aortic leaflets due to dilatation of the aortic root (the most common mechanism of aortic insufficiency associated
with type A dissection). Arrow designates the dissection flap. (B) Transesophageal echocardiogram of the aortic root illustrating pro-
lapse of the aortic valve (small arrow) due to extension of the dissection to the annulus causing AR (not shown). FL, False lumen; LA,
left atrium; TL, true lumen. (C) Transesophageal echocardiogram of the aortic root and ascending aorta (Ao) illustrating a dissection
flap (arrow) prolapsing through the aortic valve into the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT), resulting in AR in this patient.
Figure 32
Longitudinal view of a transesophageal echocardio-
gram with color Doppler illustrates multiple reentry sites (arrows)
demonstrating flow from true lumen (TL) to false lumen (FL).
Reentry sites are the major reason the false lumen remains pat-
ent over time.
142 Goldstein et al
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
February 2015
4. MRI of Aortic Dissection.
Early identification of aortic dissec-
tion and precise characterization of anatomic details are critical for
clinical and surgical management of this condition.
182
Imaging of sus-
pected dissection should address not only the presence of a dissection
flap and its extent but also the entry and reentry points, presence and
severity of aortic insufficiency, and flow into arch and visceral branch
vessels. MRI, which can address all of these issues noninvasively,
provides high spatial and contrast resolution and functional assess-
ment with an imaging time of 20 to 30 min. Specifically, MRI has
very high sensitivity (97%–100%) and specificity (94%–100%) for
diagnosing dissection.
161,183,184
MRI also provides imaging without
the burden of ionizing radiation, an important consideration for
patients who undergo serial assessments of a known aortic dissection.
MRI does have potential limitations in this patient population.
Although the scan times for MRI are relatively short, they are signifi-
cantly longer than the scan times for CT angiography. Additionally,
physiologic waveforms are challenging to obtain within the MRI scan-
ner environment.
185,186
Although cardiac rhythm, blood pressure,
and oximetry can be monitored with MRI-appropriate equipment,
caring for patients within an MRI scanning area can be difficult in
Figure 33
Axial source images from the computed tomographic aortogram (left) and the late-phase computed tomographic study
(right) performed in a patient with AAS. The additional late acquisition rules out false lumen thrombosis, showing late enhancement
and retention of contrast-enhanced blood in the false lumen.
Figure 34
Evolutive changes in a type B chronic aortic dissection. The comparison is performed by synchronizing thin (0.75-mm) axial
images of the baseline and follow-up computed tomographic aortograms. The images show an expansion of the false lumen (asterisk)
with compression of the true lumen, with an overall mild external expansion of the dissected descending thoracic aorta. Note the
similarity of mediastinal and posterior thoracic wall anatomic markers.
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
Volume 28 Number 2
Goldstein et al 143
emergent or unstable clinical scenarios that may be associated with
aortic dissection.
A combination of dark-blood and bright-blood images in axial and
oblique planes oriented to the aorta allows the detection and charac-
terization of intimal flaps. True and false lumens can be differentiated
by patterns of flow and by anatomic features (
Figures 35 and 36
).
185
The false lumen can often be identified on spin-echo images by a
higher intraluminal signal intensity attributable to slower flow and
may be characterized by web-like remnants of dissected media.
187
Cine bright-blood imaging can also be used to directly visualize
flow patterns within true and false lumens. Associated anatomic find-
ings outside of the aorta on MRI may also be of interest, such as high
signal intensity within pericardial effusion on dark-blood imaging,
indicating the possibility of the ascending aorta rupturing into the peri-
cardial space.
188
Phase-contrast imaging can provide flow quantifica-
tion of aortic insufficiency associated with dissection and can also
allow definition of entry and reentry sites and differentiation of
slow flow and thrombus in the false lumen. Newer 3D phase-
contrast approaches have shown promise in further defining the
flow characteristics and associated parameters of aortic dissection,
such as wall stress.
189
Contrast-enhanced 3D MRA provides 3D data, results that allow
postprocessing and detailed assessment of aortic and large-branch
vessel anatomy in cases of dissection.
190
The dynamics of aortic
flow can also be evaluated with time-resolved MRA.
191
Imaging
with blood-pool contrast agents allows steady-state phase scanning,
which can improve spatial resolution and better demonstrate the
amount of thrombus within the false lumen.
192
5. Imaging Algorithm.
Aortic dissection is a life-threatening condi-
tion that is associated with high early mortality and therefore requires
prompt and accurate diagnosis. Numerous publications have sought
to establish the relative merits of CT, TEE, and MRI as first-line imag-
ing modalities. In truth, each diagnostic method has its strengths and
weakness, as previously discussed. The optimal choice of imaging mo-
dality at a given institution should depend not only on the proven
accuracy (all three are highly accurate) but also on the availability of
the techniques and on the experience and confidence of the physi-
cian performing and interpreting the technique. CT has become the
most commonly used first-time imaging modality partly because it
is more readily available on a 24-hour basis.
129
TEE may be the
preferred imaging modality in the emergency room, if an experienced
cardiologist is available, because it provides immediate and sufficient
information to determine if emergency surgery will be required.
Although CT may be less accurate for determining the degree and
mechanism of AR, this can be evaluated by TTE and/or intraoperative
TEE. The relative advantages and disadvantages of the various imag-
ing modalities are summarized in
Table 9
.
There are situations in which a single imaging test is insufficient to
confidently confirm or exclude the diagnosis of aortic dissection. A
strong clinical suspicion accompanied by a negative initial imaging
test should dictate a second test, as should a situation in which the first
test is nondiagnostic. This may be due to technical limitations or inter-
pretative difficulties (e.g., distinguishing an artifact from a true flap).
Because of the importance of establishing a correct diagnosis in this
potentially life-threatening condition, obtaining a second or even a
third imaging modality should be considered.
In summary, CT is an excellent imaging modality for diagnosing
aortic dissection and is most often the initial modality when aortic
dissection is suspected because of its accuracy, widespread availabil-
ity, and because it provides rapid evaluation of the entire aorta and
its branches. TTE may be useful as the initial imaging modality in
the emergency room, especially when the aortic root is involved.
Contrast may improve its accuracy. TTE may also complement CT
by adding information about the presence, severity, and mecha-
nism(s) of AR, pericardial effusion, and left ventricular function.
TEE may be a second-line diagnostic procedure when information
from CT is limited (sometimes not certain if the ascending aorta is
involved). TEE can define entry tear location and size, mechanism(s)
and severity of AR, and involvement of coronary arteries. TEE should
be performed immediately before surgery in the operating room and
should be used to monitor the operative results. All of these modal-
ities may be helpful for identifying associated lesions at the aortic
valve level (e.g., bicuspid aortic valve [BAV]) that may require a spe-
cific surgical strategy.
6. Use of TEE to Guide Surgery for Type A Aortic
Dissection.
TEE should be performed in the operating room in
all patients during repair of type A aortic dissection. Even if the diag-
nosis has been ‘‘established’’ with a preoperative imaging modality,
confirmation by intraoperative TEE before initiating cardiopulmonary
bypass will minimize the possibility of a false-positive diagnosis. Once
the diagnosis of aortic dissection has been confirmed, the primary
purpose of the intraoperative TEE is to detail the anatomy of the
dissection and to better define its physiologic consequences. The
origin and proximal extent of the dissection flap and the dimensions
of the aorta at the annulus, sinuses of Valsalva, and STJ are important
Figure 35
MR image extracted from a dynamic cine steady-
state free precession (SSFP) sequence in a patient with type B
aortic dissection arising just after the origin of the left subclavian
artery. The arrow shows the entry tear. FL, false lumen; TL, true
lumen.
144 Goldstein et al
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
February 2015
for determining whether to replace the ascending aorta alone or to
also replace the root.
Up to 50% of type A aortic dissections are complicated by moder-
ate or severe AR, and there are several mechanisms by which this may
occur.
193
Most commonly, aortic dilatation, be it acute or chronic,
leads to aortic leaflet tethering that, in turn, results in incomplete aortic
valve closure and secondary AR.
194
When the dissection flap extends
proximally into the sinuses of Valsalva (i.e., below the level of the STJ),
it can effectively detach one or more of the aortic valve commissures
from the outer aortic wall; the aortic valve leaflets are then no longer
suspended from the STJ and therefore prolapse in diastole, causing
significant AR. Less commonly, the dissection process is extensive
and results in a long, complex dissection flap, a piece of which may
itself prolapse through the aortic valve into the left ventricular outflow
tract in diastole, preventing normal leaflet coaptation and causing
AR.
195
Remarkably, in some patients, the dissection causes prolapse
of the aortic leaflets, which would otherwise produce severe AR,
yet a lengthy piece of the dissection flap falls back against the aortic
valve in early diastole and essentially smothers the orifice and pre-
vents regurgitation. In such cases, Doppler may reveal only mild AR
Figure 36
Images from a 55-year-old woman with chronic type B aortic dissection. The true lumen (yellow arrow) is characterized by
lack of signal in the dark blood image (left), bright signal in the single-shot steady-state free precession (SSFP) image (middle), and
bright signal (caused by contrast filling) in the MR angiographic image (right). False lumen (red arrow) is notable for intermediate signal
on dark blood and single-shot SSFP sequences, and lack of signal is noted in the thrombosed false lumen on MRA.
Table 9
Recommendation for choice of imaging modality for aortic dissection
Modality
Recommendation
Advantages
Disadvantages
CT
First-line
Initial test in >70% of patients
*
Widely available, quickest diagnostic times
Very high diagnostic accuracy
Relatively operator independent
Allows evaluation of entire aorta, including arch
vessels, mesenteric vessels and renal arteries
Ionizing radiation exposure
Requires iodinated contrast material
Pulsation artifact in ascending aorta (can be
improved with ECG gating)
TEE
First- and
second-line
Very high diagnostic accuracy in thoracic aorta
Widely available, portable, convenient, fast
Excellent for pericardial effusion, and presence,
degree and mechanism(s) of AR and LV function
Can detect involvement of coronary arteries
Safely performed on critically ill patients, even
those on ventilators
Optimal procedure for guidance in OR
Operator dependent (depends on skill of operator)
‘‘Blind spot’’ upper ascending aorta, proximal arch
Not reliable for cerebral vessels, celiac trunk, SMA,
etc.
Reverberation artifacts can potentially mimic
dissection flap (can be differentiated from flaps in
vast majority)
Semi-invasive
TTE
Second-line
Often initial imaging modality in ER
Provides assessment of LV contractility, pericar-
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