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Kinds of Organisms
Different kinds of living systems are considered to be organisms. There are paradigmatic exam-
ples: whole, individual, living systems such as rats, fungi, maple trees, human beings, and sea
bass. But how about highly integrated groups of living things, such as eusocial insect colonies?
Should the group, considered as a collective entity, be regarded as having organismic status, or
should such an ascription be restricted to the individuals that comprise the group? Opinions
about which way to go are divided (Gardner and Grafen 2009). Some invoke an exclusion prin-
ciple that if something is an organism than organisms cannot be its parts, while others demure
(see Godfrey-Smith 2013). There are also composite candidate organisms to consider. Lichens
are composites, formed from partnerships between cyanobacteria or algae and fungi, function-
ing as a single, stable unit. Is an “individual” lichen one organism, or several organisms, or both?
All eukaryotic organisms—that is, all organisms apart from archaea and bacteria—possess mi-
tochondria containing mitochondrial DNA, which is distinct from the DNA contained within
the cell nucleus. Perhaps, therefore, we should consider all eukaryotes—including ourselves—as
composites as well. There are many other examples (see, for instance, Wilson 1975).
An additional reason to consider many other organisms, including ourselves, as composites
is the possession of a microbiome. Lynn Margulis (Margulis and Fester 1991) coined the term
holobiont to characterize composites of host systems and their micro-symbionts—a “compound
of recognizable bionts” (3). In our own case, we depend for our existence on the one thousand or
so varieties of bacteria that reside in our gut, but there are many other examples of such adaptive
partnerships, such as the squid-Vibrio relationship:
Hawaiian bobtail squid (Euprymna scolopes) takes in a small number of bacteria
of a certain kind (Vibrio fischeri) when it is very young. These bacteria grow into
colonies within specialized “crypts” inside the squid, which form part of the squid’s
“light organ.” No other bacteria can colonize these crypts. The organ lights up in a
way that provides camouflage from predators watching from below, as it prevents
the squid from casting a shadow. This shadow would be cast by moonlight—the
squid hunts at night. At the dawn of each day, most of the bacteria are expelled,
and the colony regrows from the remainder while the squid hides on the sea floor
(Godfrey-Smith 2013, 29).
If we are willing to countenance such mutually dependent partnerships as organisms, why not
extend the principle further? Must organismality end at a paradigmatic individual’s skin? There
have been compelling arguments that structures animals build should be considered extensions
of their phenotype, and thus a part of the organism (Dawkins 1982; Turner 2002). Perhaps
the boundaries of the organism can be pushed out further still, dissolving any absolute line of
demarcation between organism and ecosystem. A tapeworm plus the gastrointestinal tract of
the cow in which it lives is a living system. The cow plus the pasture on which it grazes is a
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smith: organisms as persisters
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living system too. Does cow plus tapeworm plus cow’s microbiome plus pasture (with its many,
many biota) add up to a macro-organism? If not, why not?
Some systems are sometimes treated as “sort of ” organisms because they do not fully con-
form to conventional notions of what organisms are. If being an organism is something absolute
(such that an entity either is one or isn’t one), then these marginal cases might be understood as
entities that resemble organisms in certain respects, but are not really organisms. Alternatively,
one might think of organismality as a property that a biological system might have to a greater
or lesser degree (e.g., Godfrey-Smith 2013; Queller and Strassmann 2009), and conclude that
the marginal cases are just less organismic than the paradigmatic ones.
Both of these approaches appear to rely on a common inferential strategy. It begins with
the notion that certain biological systems are unproblematically organisms while others are or-
ganisms only to the extent that they approximate, in some respect or respects, the allegedly
paradigmatic examples. From this perspective, insofar as there are genuine questions to be
asked about what living systems count as organisms, these questions concern the candidates
that qualify as organisms only to the extent that they approximate the paradigmatic cases. But
one might ask why these, and not others, have this privileged status? Why not (for example)
treat the Portuguese Man O’ War or the honey bee colony as paradigmatic and rats and humans
as non-paradigmatic?
The use of paradigmatic cases as a benchmark for organismality seems rooted in common-
sense ideas about what things count as organisms (that paradigm cases are paradigm cases is a
presupposition rather than a discovery). An alternative method—one that I favor—is to start
with some view of what organismality is and then investigate which biological systems satisfy it.
If we begin with a conception of the property of organismality, and then determine what sorts
of living systems satisfy this conception, rather than beginning with what we take to be paradig-
matic organisms, and then determine what kinds of organisms approximate the uncontroversial
cases, an answer to the question of whether a given biological system is an organism might or
might not converge with commonsense assumptions.
However, I do not think that one can free oneself entirely from folk presuppositions when
thinking about the organism question. So, it seems inevitable that one’s point of departure will
be paradigmatic cases and that one’s initial assumptions about what organismality amounts to
will be based on them.
What is key, then, is a decision about what attributes of paradigmatic organisms one will
take as definitive of organismality. In order for the notion of the organism to have pragmatic
utility, it must not be too specific (such that, for example only the members of certain taxa count
as organisms) nor too general (at the extreme, so that all living systems count as organisms).
Settling on a conception of organismality, then, requires one to find an optimum somewhere
between these two extremes and appropriate to the explanatory projects at hand. For example,
if one’s goal is to say something about biological variability, then the definition of what an
organism is might be different than is the case if the goal is to say something about development,
or if one wishes to offer an origin explanation for some trait or phenomenon. Or one might
think that a pluralistic approach might be the most appropriate way to go forward, since it might
accommodate better the standard boundaries between kinds of systems. Unless of course, that
is, one can configure a view that covers paradigmatic cases as well as non-paradigmatic cases,
and which is appropriate to a broad range of kinds of explanatory projects.
In the final analysis, it seems that one needs to lean on commonsense sensibilities in order
to move beyond them, and one should not delude oneself into thinking that one can, through
some objective procedure, arrive at a conclusion about what organisms really are in a way that is
wholly independent of one’s explanatory interests.
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