JEFF ZASLOW
who lived his life as a role model for the principles in this book.
CONTENTS
Praise for Give and Take
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
1 Good Returns
The Dangers and Rewards of Giving More Than You Get
2 The Peacock and the Panda
How Givers, Takers, and Matchers Build Networks
3 The Ripple Effect
Collaboration and the Dynamics of Giving and Taking Credit
4 Finding the Diamond in the Rough
The Fact and Fiction of Recognizing Potential
5 The Power of Powerless Communication
How to Be Modest and Influence People
6 The Art of Motivation Maintenance
Why Some Givers Burn Out but Others Are On Fire
7 Chump Change
Overcoming the Doormat Effect
8 The Scrooge Shift
Why a Soccer Team, a Fingerprint, and a Name Can Tilt Us in the Other Direction
9 Out of the Shadows
Actions for Impact
Acknowledgments
References
Index
1
Good Returns
The Dangers and Rewards of Giving More Than You Get
The principle of give and take; that is diplomacy—give one and take ten.
—Mark Twain, author and humorist
On a sunny Saturday afternoon in Silicon Valley
, two proud fathers stood on the sidelines of a soccer
field. They were watching their young daughters play together, and it was only a matter of time before
they struck up a conversation about work. The taller of the two men was Danny Shader, a serial
entrepreneur who had spent time at Netscape, Motorola, and Amazon. Intense, dark-haired, and
capable of talking about business forever, Shader was in his late thirties by the time he launched his
first company, and he liked to call himself the “old man of the Internet.” He loved building
companies, and he was just getting his fourth start-up off the ground.
Shader had instantly taken a liking to the other father, a man named David Hornik who invests in
companies for a living. At 5'4", with dark hair, glasses, and a goatee, Hornik is a man of eclectic
interests: he collects Alice in Wonderland books, and in college he created his own major in
computer music. He went on to earn a master’s in criminology and a law degree, and after burning the
midnight oil at a law firm, he accepted a job offer to join a venture capital firm, where he spent the
next decade listening to pitches from entrepreneurs and deciding whether or not to fund them.
During a break between soccer games, Shader turned to Hornik and said, “I’m working on
something—do you want to see a pitch?” Hornik specialized in Internet companies, so he seemed like
an ideal investor to Shader. The interest was mutual. Most people who pitch ideas are first-time
entrepreneurs, with no track record of success. In contrast, Shader was a blue-chip entrepreneur who
had hit the jackpot not once, but twice. In 1999, his first start-up, Accept.com, was acquired by
Amazon for $175 million. In 2007, his next company, Good Technology, was acquired by Motorola
for $500 million. Given Shader’s history, Hornik was eager to hear what he was up to next.
A few days after the soccer game, Shader drove to Hornik’s office and pitched his newest idea.
Nearly a quarter of Americans have trouble making online purchases because they don’t have a bank
account or credit card, and Shader was proposing an innovative solution to this problem. Hornik was
one of the first venture capitalists to hear the pitch, and right off the bat, he loved it. Within a week, he
put Shader in front of his partners and offered him a term sheet: he wanted to fund Shader’s company.
Although Hornik had moved fast, Shader was in a strong position. Given Shader’s reputation, and
the quality of his idea, Hornik knew plenty of investors would be clamoring to work with Shader.
“You’re rarely the only investor giving an entrepreneur a term sheet,” Hornik explains. “You’re
competing with the best venture capital firms in the country, and trying to convince the entrepreneur to
take your money instead of theirs.”
The best way for Hornik to land the investment was to set a deadline for Shader to make his
decision. If Hornik made a compelling offer with a short fuse, Shader might sign it before he had the
chance to pitch to other investors. This is what many venture capitalists do to stack the odds in their
favor.
But Hornik didn’t give Shader a deadline. In fact, he practically invited Shader to shop his offer
around to other investors. Hornik believed that entrepreneurs need time to evaluate their options, so
as a matter of principle, he refused to present exploding offers. “Take as much time as you need to
make the right decision,” he said. Although Hornik hoped Shader would conclude that the right
decision was to sign with him, he put Shader’s best interests ahead of his own, giving Shader space to
explore other options.
Shader did just that: he spent the next few weeks pitching his idea to other investors. In the
meantime, Hornik wanted to make sure he was still a strong contender, so he sent Shader his most
valuable resource: a list of forty references who could attest to Hornik’s caliber as an investor.
Hornik knew that entrepreneurs look for the same attributes in investors that we all seek in financial
advisers: competence and trustworthiness. When entrepreneurs sign with an investor, the investor
joins their board of directors and provides expert advice. Hornik’s list of references reflected the
blood, sweat, and tears that he had devoted to entrepreneurs over the course of more than a decade in
the venture business. He knew they would vouch for his skill and his character.
A few weeks later, Hornik’s phone rang. It was Shader, ready to announce his decision.
“I’m sorry,” Shader said, “but I’m signing with another investor.”
The financial terms of the offer from Hornik and the other investor were virtually identical, so
Hornik’s list of forty references should have given him an advantage. And after speaking with the
references, it was clear to Shader that Hornik was a great guy.
But it was this very same spirit of generosity that doomed Hornik’s case. Shader worried that
Hornik would spend more time encouraging him than challenging him. Hornik might not be tough
enough to help Shader start a successful business, and the other investor had a reputation for being a
brilliant adviser who questioned and pushed entrepreneurs. Shader walked away thinking, “I should
probably add somebody to the board who will challenge me more. Hornik is so affable that I don’t
know what he’ll be like in the boardroom.” When he called Hornik, he explained, “My heart said to
go with you, but my head said to go with them. I decided to go with my head instead of my heart.”
Hornik was devastated, and he began to second-guess himself. “Am I a dope? If I had applied
pressure to take the term sheet, maybe he would have taken it. But I’ve spent a decade building my
reputation so this wouldn’t happen. How did this happen?”
David Hornik learned his lesson the hard way: good guys finish last.
Or do they?
***
According to conventional wisdom, highly successful people have three things in common:
motivation, ability, and opportunity. If we want to succeed, we need a combination of hard work,
talent, and luck. The story of Danny Shader and David Hornik highlights a fourth ingredient, one that’s
critical but often neglected: success depends heavily on how we approach our interactions with other
people. Every time we interact with another person at work, we have a choice to make: do we try to
claim as much value as we can, or contribute value without worrying about what we receive in
return?
As an organizational psychologist and Wharton professor, I’ve dedicated more than ten years of
my professional life to studying these choices at organizations ranging from Google to the U.S. Air
Force, and it turns out that they have staggering consequences for success. Over the past three
decades, in a series of groundbreaking studies, social scientists have discovered that people differ
dramatically in their
preferences for reciprocity
—their desired mix of taking and giving. To shed
some light on these preferences, let me introduce you to two kinds of people who fall at opposite ends
of the reciprocity spectrum at work. I call them takers and givers.
Takers have a distinctive signature: they like to get more than they give. They tilt reciprocity in
their own favor, putting their own interests ahead of others’ needs. Takers believe that the world is a
competitive, dog-eat-dog place. They feel that to succeed, they need to be better than others. To prove
their competence, they self-promote and make sure they get plenty of credit for their efforts. Garden-
variety takers aren’t cruel or cutthroat; they’re just cautious and self-protective. “If I don’t look out
for myself first,” takers think, “no one will.” Had David Hornik been more of a taker, he would have
given Danny Shader a deadline, putting his goal of landing the investment ahead of Shader’s desire
for a flexible timeline.
But Hornik is the opposite of a taker; he’s a giver. In the workplace, givers are a relatively rare
breed. They tilt reciprocity in the other direction, preferring to give more than they get. Whereas
takers tend to be self-focused, evaluating what other people can offer them, givers are other-focused,
paying more attention to what other people need from them. These preferences aren’t about money:
givers and takers aren’t distinguished by how much they donate to charity or the compensation that
they command from their employers. Rather, givers and takers differ in their attitudes and actions
toward other people. If you’re a taker, you help others strategically, when the benefits to you
outweigh the personal costs. If you’re a giver, you might use a different cost-benefit analysis: you help
whenever the benefits to others exceed the personal costs. Alternatively, you might not think about the
personal costs at all, helping others without expecting anything in return. If you’re a giver at work,
you simply strive to be generous in sharing your time, energy, knowledge, skills, ideas, and
connections with other people who can benefit from them.
It’s tempting to reserve the giver label for larger-than-life heroes such as Mother Teresa or
Mahatma Gandhi, but being a giver doesn’t require extraordinary acts of sacrifice. It just involves a
focus on acting in the interests of others, such as by giving help, providing mentoring, sharing credit,
or making connections for others. Outside the workplace, this type of behavior is quite common.
According to research led by Yale psychologist Margaret Clark,
most people act like givers in close
relationships
. In marriages and friendships, we contribute whenever we can without keeping score.
But in the workplace, give and take becomes more complicated. Professionally, few of us act
purely like givers or takers, adopting a third style instead. We become matchers, striving to preserve
an equal balance of giving and getting. Matchers operate on the principle of fairness: when they help
others, they protect themselves by seeking reciprocity. If you’re a matcher, you believe in tit for tat,
and your relationships are governed by even exchanges of favors.
Giving, taking, and matching are three fundamental styles of social interaction, but the lines
between them aren’t hard and fast. You might find that you shift from one reciprocity style to another
as you travel across different work roles and relationships.
*
It wouldn’t be surprising if you act like a
taker when negotiating your salary, a giver when mentoring someone with less experience than you,
and a matcher when sharing expertise with a colleague. But evidence shows that at work, the vast
majority of people develop a primary reciprocity style, which captures how they approach most of
the people most of the time. And this primary style can play as much of a role in our success as hard
work, talent, and luck.
In fact, the patterns of success based on reciprocity styles are remarkably clear. If I asked you to
guess who’s the most likely to end up at the bottom of the success ladder, what would you say—
takers, givers, or matchers?
Professionally, all three reciprocity styles have their own benefits and drawbacks. But there’s one
style that proves more costly than the other two. Based on David Hornik’s story, you might predict
that givers achieve the worst results—and you’d be right. Research demonstrates that givers sink to
the bottom of the success ladder. Across a wide range of important occupations, givers are at a
disadvantage: they make others better off but sacrifice their own success in the process.
In the
world of engineering
, the least productive and effective engineers are givers. In one study,
when more than 160 professional engineers in California rated one another on help given and
received, the least successful engineers were those who gave more than they received. These givers
had the worst objective scores in their firm for the number of tasks, technical reports, and drawings
completed—not to mention errors made, deadlines missed, and money wasted. Going out of their way
to help others prevented them from getting their own work done.
The same pattern emerges in medical school. In a study of more than six hundred
medical students
in Belgium
, the students with the lowest grades had unusually high scores on giver statements like “I
love to help others” and “I anticipate the needs of others.” The givers went out of their way to help
their peers study, sharing what they already knew at the expense of filling gaps in their own
knowledge, and it gave their peers a leg up at test time. Salespeople are no different. In a study I led
of
salespeople in North Carolina
, compared with takers and matchers, givers brought in two and a
half times less annual sales revenue. They were so concerned about what was best for their customers
that they weren’t willing to sell aggressively.
Across occupations, it appears that givers are just too caring, too trusting, and too willing to
sacrifice their own interests for the benefit of others. There’s even evidence that compared with
takers, on average,
givers earn 14 percent less money
, have
twice the risk of becoming victims of
crimes
, and are
judged as 22 percent less powerful and dominant
.
So if givers are most likely to land at the bottom of the success ladder, who’s at the top—takers or
matchers?
Neither. When I took another look at the data, I discovered a surprising pattern: It’s the givers
again.
As we’ve seen, the engineers with the lowest productivity are mostly givers. But when we look at
the engineers with the highest productivity, the evidence shows that they’re givers too. The California
engineers with the best objective scores for quantity and quality of results are those who consistently
give more to their colleagues than they get. The worst performers and the best performers are givers;
takers and matchers are more likely to land in the middle.
This pattern holds up across the board. The Belgian medical students with the lowest grades have
unusually high giver scores, but so do the students with the highest grades. Over the course of
medical school, being a giver accounts for 11 percent higher grades. Even in sales, I found that the
least productive salespeople had 25 percent higher giver scores than average performers—but so did
the most productive salespeople. The top performers were givers, and they averaged 50 percent more
annual revenue than the takers and matchers. Givers dominate the bottom and the top of the success
ladder. Across occupations, if you examine the link between reciprocity styles and success, the givers
are more likely to become champs—not only chumps.
Guess which one David Hornik turns out to be?
—
After Danny Shader signed with the other investor, he had a gnawing feeling. “We just closed a big
round. We should be celebrating. Why am I not happier? I was excited about my investor, who’s
exceptionally bright and talented, but I was missing the opportunity to work with Hornik.” Shader
wanted to find a way to engage Hornik, but there was a catch. To involve him, Shader and his lead
investor would have to sell more of the company, diluting their ownership.
Shader decided it was worth the cost to him personally. Before the financing closed, he invited
Hornik to invest in his company. Hornik accepted the offer and made an investment, earning some
ownership of the company. He began coming to board meetings, and Shader was impressed with
Hornik’s ability to push him to consider new directions. “I got to see the other side of him,” Shader
says. “It had just been overshadowed by how affable he is.” Thanks in part to Hornik’s advice,
Shader’s start-up has taken off. It’s called PayNearMe, and it enables Americans who don’t have a
bank account or a credit card to make online purchases with a barcode or a card, and then pay cash
for them at participating establishments. Shader landed major partnerships with 7-Eleven and
Greyhound to provide these services, and in the first year and a half since launching, PayNearMe has
been growing at more than 30 percent per month. As an investor, Hornik has a small share in this
growth.
Hornik has also added Shader to his list of references, which is probably even more valuable than
the deal itself. When entrepreneurs call to ask about Hornik, Shader tells them, “You may be thinking
he’s just a nice guy, but he’s a lot more than that. He’s phenomenal: super-hardworking and very
courageous. He can be both challenging and supportive at the same time. And he’s incredibly
responsive, which is one of the best characteristics you can have in an investor. He’ll get back to you
any hour—day or night—quickly, on anything that matters.”
The payoff for Hornik was not limited to this single deal on PayNearMe. After seeing Hornik in
action, Shader came to admire Hornik’s commitment to acting in the best interests of entrepreneurs,
and he began to set Hornik up with other investment opportunities. In one case, after meeting the CEO
of a company called Rocket Lawyer, Shader recommended Hornik as an investor. Although the CEO
already had a term sheet from another investor, Hornik ended up winning the investment.
Although he recognizes the downsides, David Hornik believes that operating like a giver has been
a driving force behind his success in venture capital. Hornik estimates that when most venture
capitalists offer term sheets to entrepreneurs, they have a signing rate near 50 percent: “If you get half
of the deals you offer, you’re doing pretty well.” Yet in eleven years as a venture capitalist, Hornik
has offered twenty-eight term sheets to entrepreneurs, and twenty-five have accepted. Shader is one of
just three people who have ever turned down an investment from Hornik. The other 89 percent of the
time entrepreneurs have taken Hornik’s money. Thanks to his funding and expert advice, these
entrepreneurs have gone on to build a number of successful start-ups—one was valued at more than
$3 billion on its first day of trading in 2012, and others have been acquired by Google, Oracle,
Ticketmaster, and Monster.
Hornik’s hard work and talent, not to mention his luck at being on the right sideline at his
daughter’s soccer game, played a big part in lining up the deal with Danny Shader. But it was his
reciprocity style that ended up winning the day for him. Even better, he wasn’t the only winner.
Shader won too, as did the companies to which Shader later recommended Hornik. By operating as a
giver, Hornik created value for himself while maximizing opportunities for value to flow outward for
the benefit of others.
***
In this book, I want to persuade you that we underestimate the success of givers like David Hornik.
Although we often stereotype givers as chumps and doormats, they turn out to be surprisingly
successful. To figure out why givers dominate the top of the success ladder, we’ll examine startling
studies and stories that illuminate how giving can be more powerful—and less dangerous—than most
people believe. Along the way, I’ll introduce you to successful givers from many different walks of
life, including consultants, lawyers, doctors, engineers, salespeople, writers, entrepreneurs,
accountants, teachers, financial advisers, and sports executives. These givers reverse the popular
plan of succeeding first and giving back later, raising the possibility that those who give first are often
best positioned for success later.
But we can’t forget about those engineers and salespeople at the bottom of the ladder. Some
givers do become pushovers and doormats, and I want to explore what separates the champs from the
chumps. The answer is less about raw talent or aptitude, and more about the strategies givers use and
the choices they make. To explain how givers avoid the bottom of the success ladder, I’m going to
debunk two common myths about givers by showing you that they’re not necessarily nice, and they’re
not necessarily altruistic. We all have goals for our own individual achievements, and it turns out that
successful givers are every bit as ambitious as takers and matchers. They simply have a different way
of pursuing their goals.
This brings us to my third aim, which is to reveal what’s unique about the success of givers. Let
me be clear that givers, takers, and matchers all can—and do—achieve success. But there’s
something distinctive that happens when givers succeed: it spreads and cascades. When takers win,
there’s usually someone else who loses. Research shows that people tend to
envy successful takers
and look for ways to knock them down a notch. In contrast, when givers like David Hornik win,
people are rooting for them and supporting them, rather than gunning for them. Givers succeed in a
way that creates a ripple effect, enhancing the success of people around them. You’ll see that the
difference lies in how giver success creates value, instead of just claiming it. As the venture capitalist
Randy Komisar remarks, “
It’s easier to win
if everybody wants you to win. If you don’t make enemies
out there, it’s easier to succeed.”
But in some arenas, it seems that the costs of giving clearly outweigh the benefits. In politics, for
example, Mark Twain’s opening quote suggests that diplomacy involves taking ten times as much as
giving. “
Politics
,” writes former president Bill Clinton, “is a ‘getting’ business. You have to get
support, contributions, and votes, over and over again.” Takers should have an edge in lobbying and
outmaneuvering their opponents in competitive elections, and matchers may be well suited to the
constant trading of favors that politics demands. What happens to givers in the world of politics?
Consider the political struggles of a hick who went by the name Sampson
. He said his goal was to
be the “Clinton of Illinois,” and he set his sights on winning a seat in the Senate. Sampson was an
unlikely candidate for political office, having spent his early years working on a farm. But Sampson
had great ambition; he made his first run for a seat in the state legislature when he was just twenty-
three years old. There were thirteen candidates, and only the top four won seats. Sampson made a
lackluster showing, finishing eighth.
After losing that race, Sampson turned his eye to business, taking out a loan to start a small shop
with a friend. The business failed, and Sampson was unable to repay the loan, so his possessions
were seized by local authorities. Shortly thereafter, his business partner died without assets, and
Sampson took on the debt. Sampson jokingly called his liability “the national debt”: he owed fifteen
times his annual income. It would take him years, but he eventually paid back every cent.
After his business failed, Sampson made a second run for the state legislature. Although he was
only twenty-five years old, he finished second, landing a seat. For his first legislative session, he had
to borrow the money to buy his first suit. For the next eight years, Sampson served in the state
legislature, earning a law degree along the way. Eventually, at age forty-five, he was ready to pursue
influence on the national stage. He made a bid for the Senate.
Sampson knew he was fighting an uphill battle. He had two primary opponents: James Shields
and Lyman Trumbull. Both had been state Supreme Court justices, coming from backgrounds far more
privileged than Sampson’s. Shields, the incumbent running for reelection, was the nephew of a
congressman. Trumbull was the grandson of an eminent Yale-educated historian. By comparison,
Sampson had little experience or political clout.
In the first poll, Sampson was a surprise front-runner, with 44 percent support. Shields was close
behind at 41 percent, and Trumbull was a distant third at 5 percent. In the next poll, Sampson gained
ground, climbing to 47 percent support. But the tide began to turn when a new candidate entered the
race: the state’s current governor, Joel Matteson. Matteson was popular, and he had the potential to
draw votes from both Sampson and Trumbull. When Shields withdrew from the race, Matteson
quickly took the lead. Matteson had 44 percent, Sampson was down to 38 percent, and Trumbull was
at just 9 percent. But hours later, Trumbull won the election with 51 percent, narrowly edging out
Matteson’s 47 percent.
Why did Sampson plummet, and how did Trumbull rise so quickly? The sudden reversal of their
positions was due to a choice made by Sampson, who seemed plagued by pathological giving. When
Matteson entered the race, Sampson began to doubt his own ability to garner enough support to win.
He knew that Trumbull had a small but loyal following who would not give up on him. Most people
in Sampson’s shoes would have lobbied Trumbull’s followers to jump ship. After all, with just 9
percent support, Trumbull was a long shot.
But Sampson’s primary concern wasn’t getting elected. It was to prevent Matteson from winning.
Sampson believed that Matteson was engaging in questionable practices. Some onlookers had
accused Matteson of trying to bribe influential voters. At minimum, Sampson had reliable information
that some of his own key supporters had been approached by Matteson. If it appeared that Sampson
would not stand a chance, Matteson argued, the voters should shift their loyalties and support him.
Sampson’s concerns about Matteson’s methods and motives proved prescient. A year later, when
Matteson was finishing his term as governor, he redeemed old government checks that were outdated
or had been previously redeemed, but were never canceled. Matteson took home several hundred
thousand dollars and was indicted for fraud.
In addition to harboring suspicions about Matteson, Sampson believed in Trumbull, as they had
something in common when it came to the issues. For several years, Sampson had campaigned
passionately for a major shift in social and economic policy. He believed it was vital to the future of
his state, and in this he and Trumbull were united. So instead of trying to convert Trumbull’s loyal
followers, Sampson decided to fall on his own sword. He told his floor manager, Stephen Logan, that
he would withdraw from the race and ask his supporters to vote for Trumbull. Logan was
incredulous: why should the man with a larger following hand over the election to an adversary with
a smaller following? Logan broke down into tears, but Sampson would not yield. He withdrew and
asked his supporters to vote for Trumbull. It was enough to propel Trumbull to victory, at Sampson’s
expense.
That was not the first time Sampson put the interests of others ahead of his own. Before he helped
Trumbull win the Senate race, despite earning acclaim for his work as a lawyer, Sampson’s success
was stifled by a crushing liability. He could not bring himself to defend clients if he felt they were
guilty. According to a colleague, Sampson’s clients knew “they would win their case—if it was fair;
if not, that it was a waste of time to take it to him.” In one case, a client was accused of theft, and
Sampson approached the judge. “If you can say anything for the man, do it—I can’t. If I attempt it, the
jury will see I think he is guilty, and convict him.” In another case, during a criminal trial, Sampson
leaned over and said to an associate, “This man is guilty; you defend him, I can’t.” Sampson handed
the case over to the associate, walking away from a sizable fee. These decisions earned him respect,
but they raised questions about whether he was tenacious enough to make tough political decisions.
Sampson “comes very near being a perfect man,” said one of his political rivals. “He lacks but
one thing.” The rival explained that Sampson was unfit to be trusted with power, because his
judgment was too easily clouded by concern for others. In politics, operating like a giver put
Sampson at a disadvantage. His reluctance to put himself first cost him the Senate election, and left
onlookers wondering whether he was strong enough for the unforgiving world of politics. Trumbull
was a fierce debater; Sampson was a pushover. “I regret my defeat,” Sampson admitted, but he
maintained that Trumbull’s election would help to advance the causes they shared. After the election,
a local reporter wrote that in comparison with Sampson, Trumbull was “a man of more real talent and
power.”
But Sampson wasn’t ready to step aside forever. Four years after helping Lyman Trumbull win the
seat, Sampson ran for the Senate again. He lost again. But in the weeks leading up to the vote, one of
the most outspoken supporters of Sampson’s was none other than Lyman Trumbull. Sampson’s
sacrifice had earned goodwill, and Trumbull was not the only adversary who became an advocate in
response to Sampson’s giving. In the first Senate race, when Sampson had 47 percent of the vote and
seemed to be on the brink of victory, a Chicago lawyer and politician named Norman Judd led a
strong 5 percent who would not waver in their loyalty to Trumbull. During Sampson’s second Senate
bid, Judd became a strong supporter.
Two years later, after two failed Senate races, Sampson finally won his first election at the
national level. According to one commentator, Judd never forgot Sampson’s “generous behavior” and
did “more than anyone else” to secure Sampson’s nomination.
In 1999, C-SPAN, the cable TV network that covers politics, polled more than a thousand
knowledgeable viewers. They rated the effectiveness of Sampson and three dozen other politicians
who vied for similar offices. Sampson came out at the very top of the poll, receiving the highest
evaluations. Despite his losses, he was
more popular than any other politician
on the list. You see,
Sampson’s Ghost was a pen name that the hick used in letters.
His real name was Abraham Lincoln.
In the 1830s, Lincoln was striving to be the DeWitt Clinton of Illinois, referencing a U.S. senator
and New York governor who spearheaded the construction of the Erie Canal. When Lincoln withdrew
from his first Senate race to help Lyman Trumbull win the seat, they shared a commitment to
abolishing slavery. From emancipating slaves, to sacrificing his own political opportunities for the
cause, to refusing to defend clients who appeared to be guilty, Lincoln consistently acted for the
greater good. When
experts in history, political science, and psychology rated the presidents
, they
identified Lincoln as a clear giver. “Even if it was inconvenient, Lincoln went out of his way to help
others,” wrote two experts, demonstrating “obvious concern for the well-being of individual
citizens.” It is noteworthy that Lincoln is seen as one of the least self-centered, egotistical, boastful
presidents ever. In independent ratings of presidential biographies, Lincoln scored in the top three—
along with Washington and Fillmore—in giving credit to others and acting in the best interests of
others. In the words of a military general who worked with Lincoln, “he seemed to possess more of
the elements of greatness, combined with goodness, than any other.”
In the Oval Office, Lincoln was determined to put the good of the nation above his own ego. When
he won the presidency in 1860, he invited the three candidates whom he defeated for the Republican
nomination to become his secretary of state, secretary of the treasury, and attorney general. In Team of
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