The Peacock and the Panda
How Givers, Takers, and Matchers Build Networks
Every man must decide whether he will walk in the light of creative altruism or in the darkness of
destructive selfishness.
—Martin Luther King Jr., civil rights leader and Nobel Peace Prize winner
Several decades ago, a man who started his life in poverty lived the American Dream. He came from
humble beginnings, growing up in Missouri farm towns without indoor plumbing. To help support his
family, the young man worked long hours on farms and paper routes. He put himself through college at
the University of Missouri, graduated Phi Beta Kappa, and completed a master’s degree and then a
doctorate in economics. He pursued a life of public service, enlisting in the Navy and then serving in
several important roles in the U.S. government, earning the Navy Commendation Medal and National
Defense Service Medal. From there, he built his own company, where he was chairman and CEO for
fifteen years. By the time he stepped down, his company was worth $110 billion, with more than
twenty thousand employees in forty countries around the world. For five consecutive years, Fortune
named his company “America’s Most Innovative Company” and one of the twenty-five best places to
work in the country. When asked about his success, he acknowledged the importance of “Respect . . .
the golden rule . . . Absolute integrity . . . Everyone knows that I personally have a very strict code of
personal conduct that I live by.” He set up a charitable family foundation, giving over $2.5 million to
more than 250 organizations, and donated 1 percent of his company’s annual profits to charity. His
giving attracted the attention of former president George W. Bush, who commended him as a “good
guy” and a “generous person.”
Then he was indicted.
His name was Kenneth Lay, and he is best remembered as a primary villain in the
Enron
scandal.
Enron was an energy, commodities, and securities firm headquartered in Houston. In October 2001,
Enron lost $1.2 billion in shareholder equity after reporting third-quarter losses of $618 million, the
biggest earnings restatement in U.S. history. In December, Enron went bankrupt, leaving twenty
thousand employees jobless, many watching their life savings practically erased by the company’s
fall. Investigators found that Enron had deceived investors by reporting false profits and hiding debts
of more than $1 billion, manipulated energy and power markets in California and Texas, and won
international contracts by giving illegal bribes to foreign governments. Lay was convicted on six
counts of conspiracy and fraud.
We can debate about how much Lay truly knew about Enron’s illegal activities, but it’s difficult to
deny that he was a taker. Although Lay may have looked like a giver to many observers, he was a
faker: a taker in disguise. Lay felt entitled to use Enron’s resources for personal gain. As Bethany
McLean and Peter Elkind describe in The Smartest Guys in the Room, Lay took exorbitant loans from
the company and had his staff put his sandwiches on silver platters and fine china. A secretary once
tried to reserve an Enron plane for an executive to do business, only to learn that the Lay family was
currently using three Enron planes for personal travel. From 1997 to 1998, $4.5 million in Enron
commissions went to a travel agency owned by Lay’s sister. According to accusations, he sold more
than $70 million in stock just before Enron went bankrupt, taking the treasure from a sinking ship.
This behavior was foreshadowed in the 1970s when Lay worked at Exxon. A boss wrote a reference
recommending Lay highly, but warned that he was “Maybe too ambitious.” Observers now believe
that as early as 1987, at Enron Oil, Lay approved and helped to conceal the activities of two traders
who set up fake companies and stole $3.8 million while allowing Enron to avoid massive trading
losses. When the losses were discovered, Enron Oil had to report an $85 million hit, and Lay denied
knowledge and responsibility: “If anyone could say that I knew, let them stand up.” According to
McLean and Elkind, one trader started to stand up but was physically restrained by two colleagues.
How did a taker end up becoming so successful? He knew somebody. In fact, he knew a whole lot
of somebodies. Ken Lay profited greatly from claiming his company’s financial resources as his own,
but much of his success in growing that company came the old-fashioned way: he built a network of
influential contacts and leveraged them for his own benefit. Lay was a master networker from the
start. In college, he impressed an economics professor named Pinkney Walker and started his ascent
on the shoulders of Walker’s connections. Walker helped Lay land an assignment as an economist at
the Pentagon, and then a position as a chief assistant in the White House in the Nixon administration.
By the mid-1980s, Lay became the head of Enron after engineering the company’s move to
Houston following a merger. As he consolidated his power, he began to hobnob with political power
brokers who could support Enron’s interests. He put Pinkney Walker’s brother Charls on Enron’s
board and developed a relationship with George H. W. Bush, who was running for president. In 1990,
Lay cochaired an important Summit of Industrialized Nations meeting for Bush in Houston, putting on
a dazzling show and charming the crowd, which included British prime minister Margaret Thatcher,
German chancellor Helmut Kohl, and French president François Mitterrand. After Bush lost his
reelection bid to Bill Clinton, Lay wasted no time in reaching out to a friend who was a key aide to
the president-elect—the friend had gone to kindergarten with Clinton. Soon, Lay was playing golf
with the new president. Several years later, as George W. Bush gained power, Lay used his
connections to lobby for energy deregulation and get his supporters in important government positions
in Texas and the White House, influencing policies in Enron’s favor. At nearly every stage in his
career, Lay was able to dramatically improve his company’s prospects—or his own—by making use
of well-placed contacts in his network.
For centuries, we have recognized the importance of networking. According to Brian Uzzi, a
management professor at Northwestern University,
networks come with three major advantages
:
private information, diverse skills, and power. By developing a strong network, people can gain
invaluable access to knowledge, expertise, and influence. Extensive research demonstrates that
people with rich networks achieve higher performance ratings, get promoted faster, and earn more
money. And because networks are based on interactions and relationships, they serve as a powerful
prism for understanding the impact of reciprocity styles on success. How do people relate to others in
their networks, and what do they see as the purpose of networking?
On the one hand, the very notion of networking often has negative connotations. When we meet a
new person who expresses enthusiasm about connecting, we frequently wonder whether he’s acting
friendly because he’s genuinely interested in a relationship that will benefit both of us, or because he
wants something from us. At some point in your life, you’ve probably experienced the frustration of
dealing with slick schmoozers who are nice to your face when they want a favor, but end up stabbing
you in the back—or simply ignoring you—after they get what they want. This faker style of
networking casts the entire enterprise as Machiavellian, a self-serving activity in which people make
connections for the sole purpose of advancing their own interests. On the other hand, givers and
matchers often see networking as an appealing way to connect with new people and ideas. We meet
many people throughout our professional and personal lives, and since we all have different
knowledge and resources, it makes sense to turn to these people to exchange help, advice, and
introductions. This raises a fundamental question: Can people build up networks that have breadth
and depth using different reciprocity styles? Or does one style consistently create a richer network?
In this chapter, I want to examine how givers, takers, and matchers develop fundamentally distinct
networks, and why their interactions within these networks have different characters and
consequences. You’ll see how givers and takers build and manage their networks differently, and
learn about some clues that they leak along the way—including how we could have recognized the
takers at Enron four years before the company collapsed. Ultimately, I want to argue that while givers
and takers may have equally large networks, givers are able to produce far more lasting value through
their networks, and in ways that might not seem obvious.
In 2011, Fortune conducted extensive research to identify the best networker in the United States.
The goal was to use online social networks to figure out who had the most connections to America’s
most powerful people. The staff compiled a list of the Fortune 500 CEOs, as well as Fortune’s lists
of the 50 smartest people in technology, the 50 most powerful women, and the 40 hottest rising stars
in business under age forty. Then, they cross-referenced this list of 640 powerful people against
LinkedIn’s entire database of more than ninety million members.
The winning networker was connected on LinkedIn to more of Fortune’s 640 movers and shakers
than anyone else on earth. The winner had more than 3,000 LinkedIn connections, including Netscape
cofounder Marc Andreessen, Twitter cofounder Evan Williams, Flickr cofounder Caterina Fake,
Facebook cofounder Dustin Moskovitz, Napster cofounder Sean Parker, and Half.com founder Josh
Kopelman—not to mention the former chef of the Grateful Dead. As you’ll see later, this networker
extraordinaire is a giver. “It seems counterintuitive, but the more altruistic your attitude, the more
benefits you will gain from the relationship,” writes
LinkedIn founder
Reid Hoffman. “If you set out
to help others,” he explains, “you will rapidly reinforce your own reputation and expand your
universe of possibilities.” Part of this, I’ll argue, has to do with the way networks themselves have
changed and are still evolving. At the heart of my inquiry, though, lies an exploration of how the
motives with which we approach networking shape the strength and reach of those networks, as well
as the way that energy flows through them.
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