As I have discussed previously, both Margaret Atwood and James Polk
described the ‘animal victim’ as the defining characteristic of the wild animal
story; even Seton declared that his narrativ
es were tragic because “the wild
animal
always has a tragic end
” (
Known
12, emphasis original). For all its
similarities with Seton
’s and Roberts’ work,
The White Puma
seems to set out to
challenge these expectations. In fact, Lawrence uses the prologue to establish
his protagonist’s unique response to a lifetime of pursuit by hunters: “Had he
lived in a region undisturbed by human activity, the puma would never have
1
The exception being Alison Baird’s hunted sperm whale in
White as the Waves
(1998). As the
novel is a reimagining of
Moby Dick
, however, her protagonist’s response is as inevitable as his
tragic death.
Allmark-Kent 176
been given cause to experie
nce hatred. […] He had been goaded by those men
and their dogs. […] Of late, however, the cat had begun to hunt the hunters” (4-
6). Lawrence makes it clear that the puma is seeking the specific humans,
Taggart and Cousins,
not
humans in general, and that the humans instigated
this violent relationship. He ensures that the reader is not mistaken; this is not
the random action of a ‘savage’ beast, it is the white puma’s unique act of
resistance against a lifetime of persecution by these two men. Thus, Lawrenc
e’s
protagonist is not a victim, and nor is his end tragic. In Seton or Roberts’ hands,
the narrative might conclude with the white puma’s death (either by ironic
accident or deliberate attack).
The White Puma
ends with the puma’s legal
protection; increased wildlife conservation efforts in the region; the reform of
Steve Cousins from hunter to conservation officer; the deployment of dedicated
researchers to study the pumas; and a sighting of the protagonist with a mate
and cubs.
These measures suggest the puma’s ongoing protection from
all
hunters beyond the end of the novel, not just Cousins and Taggart.
The White
Puma
becomes problematic, however, as the focus shifts increasingly from the
pumas’ perspectives to those of the hunters and conservationists. Inevitably,
this introduces some ambiguity around who
actually
resists the animal’s
victimization
—the pumas or the humans who want to protect them.
Lawrence’s inclusion of this secondary human narrative is reminiscent of
Seton
’s and Roberts’ slightly more anthropocentric animal stories. Although
Roberts prioritized action, tension, and dramatic irony, Lawrence
—as Seton
does
—uses the human perspective to strengthen and nuance his
defamiliarization of hunting. For instance, after an encounter with the tawny
puma in which Taggart's arm gets caught in his own trap, the two hunters distort
the event and use it to construct the puma (and later, her son) as a “man-eater”
Allmark-Kent 177
(85) in the local media. This enables them to make more money by bypassing
the region's hunting regulations under the pretence of public safety, despite the
fact that the puma caused no harm to either man. These diversions from the
puma's story allow for a more complex critique of recreational hunting than we
encounter in the other texts, revealing the ease with which Canada's hunting
industry may exploit regulation loopholes and insufficient conservation laws. In
the final quarter of the book, Lawrence also introduces a conservationist,
Heather Lansing, and a biologist, David Carew. As in the conversations
between Haig-Brown's characters in
Return
, Carew and Lansing provide
information to enrich the text's engagement with science and animal advocacy.
Unlike Seton or Haig-
Brown’s characters, however, these two are repeatedly
confronted with the insults “nature freaks” (240), “bleeding hearts,” and “bloody
activists” (250), demonstrating
the continued stigma against concern for
animals. Thus, Lawrence emphasizes the continued potency of this prejudice,
despite the fact that, by the late twentieth century, recognition and acceptance
of human responsibility for environmental degradation, species loss, and harm
to animal wellbeing, had spread considerably.
I contend that the hundred years or so between the publications of
Wild
Animals I Have Known
and
The White Puma
have shaped this divide between
animal protagonist as ‘victim’ and ‘survivor.’ As indicated by the figures of
Lansing and Carew, Lawrence’s book suggests an
atmosphere of both
optimism and frustration. The prominence of both animal rights and
environmental movements in the decades prior to
The White Puma
’s
publication, enable a degree of hopefulness that is entirely absent from
Return
to the River
or
Last of the Curlews
. At the end of the novel, the white puma, his
mate, and their offspring are safe. However, the frustration expressed through
Allmark-Kent 178
both the verbal abuse received by the conservationists
and the hunters’ easy
exploitation of insufficient protection laws demonstr
ates that the ‘exploitation
and protection’ paradox (which inhibited animal advocacy in Seton’s and
Roberts’ day) continues to impact progress. As such, Lawrence uses the
secondary human narrative of
The White Puma
to promote the importance of
animal protection and conservation work; both its current limitations and future
potential. In other words, the intervening century has enabled the writers of wild
animal stories to propose
a human solution
to a
human problem.
Although Lawrence abandoned his biology degree at the University of
Cambridge, he dedicated his much of his later life to working as a
conservationist, nature writer, and field biologist. At Cambridge he had refused
to adopt the required forms of academic and scientific writing, on the grounds
that they were elitist and inaccessible.
This was a stance that he maintained
throughout his career, often conveying extensive biological, ecological, and
ethological information to popular audiences through both fiction and nonfiction.
It seems fair to suggest, then, that as a prolific but unqualified naturalist who
wrote for non-specialists, Lawrence shares certain characteristics with Seton.
For instance, he also cared for and rehabilitated wild animals, and spent long
periods conducting his own field wor
k and studies, including “one ten-month
stint in British Columbia’s Selkirk Mountains where, in total isolation, he stalked
out and then observed a puma through three seasons of its life” (
White Puma
331). These experiences fuelled Lawrence’s writing (just as similar encounters
had for Seton), as a result, his published works span not only natural history,
wildlife conservation, and environmental science, but also autobiographical
nature writing, factual animal narratives, and book-length wild animal stories.
Allmark-Kent 179
Significantly however, self-conscious assertions of scientific accuracy
and credibility, like those made by Seton, are absent in Lawrence’s work. While
Haig-Brown and Bodsworth made no such assertions either, I have
demonstrated that their careful strategies for engaging with the sciences reveal
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