PLUM AND POSNER’S DIAGNOSIS
OF STUPOR AND COMA
Fourth Edition
SERIES EDITOR
Sid Gilman, MD, FRCP
William J. Herdman Distinguished University Professor of Neurology
University of Michigan
Contemporary Neurology Series
53 SLEEP MEDICINE
Michael S. Aldrich, MD
54 BRAIN TUMORS
Harry S. Greenberg, MD, William
F. Chandler, MD, and Howard M.
Sandler, MD
56 MYASTHENIA GRAVIS AND
MYASTHENIC DISORDERS
Andrew G. Engel, MD, Editor
57 NEUROGENETICS
Stefan-M. Pulst, MD, Dr. Med., Editor
58 DISEASES OF THE SPINE
AND SPINAL CORD
Thomas N. Byrne, MD, Edward C.
Benzel, MD, and Stephen G.
Waxman, MD, PhD
59 DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF
PERIPHERAL NERVE DISORDERS
Jerry R. Mendell, MD, John T. Kissel, MD,
and David R. Cornblath, MD
60 THE NEUROLOGY OF VISION
Jonathan D. Trobe, MD
61 HIV NEUROLOGY
Bruce James Brew, MBBS, MD, FRACP
62 ISCHEMIC CEREBROVASCULAR
DISEASE
Harold P. Adams, Jr., MD, Vladimir
Hachinski, MD, and John W. Norris, MD
63 CLINICAL NEUROPHYSIOLOGY OF
THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM, Third Edition
Robert W. Baloh, MD, and Vicente
Honrubia, MD
64 NEUROLOGICAL COMPLICATIONS OF
CRITICAL ILLNESS, Second Edition
Eelco F.M. Wijdicks, MD, PhD, FACP
65 MIGRAINE: MANIFESTATIONS,
PATHOGENESIS, AND MANAGEMENT,
Second Edition
Robert A. Davidoff, MD
66 CLINICAL NEUROPHYSIOLOGY,
Second Edition
Jasper R. Daube, MD, Editor
67 THE CLINICAL SCIENCE OF
NEUROLOGIC REHABILITATION,
Second Edition
Bruce H. Dobkin, MD
68 NEUROLOGY OF COGNITIVE AND
BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
Orrin Devinsky, MD, and Mark
D’Esposito, MD
69 PALLIATIVE CARE IN NEUROLOGY
Raymond Voltz, MD, James L. Bernat, MD,
Gian Domenico Borasio, MD, DipPallMed,
Ian Maddocks, MD, David Oliver, FRCGP,
and Russell K. Portenoy, MD
70 THE NEUROLOGY OF EYE
MOVEMENTS, Fourth Edition
R. John Leigh, MD, FRCP, and
David S. Zee, MD
PLUM AND POSNER’S DIAGNOSIS
OF STUPOR AND COMA
Fourth Edition
Jerome B. Posner, MD
George C. Cotzias Chair of Neuro-oncology
Evelyn Frew American Cancer Society Clinical Research Professor
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center
New York, NY
Clifford B. Saper, MD, PhD
James Jackson Putnam Professor of Neurology and Neuroscience,
Harvard Medical School
Chairman, Department of Neurology
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
Boston, MA
Nicholas D. Schiff, MD
Associate Professor of Neurology and Neuroscience
Department of Neurology and Neuroscience
Weill Cornell Medical College
New York, NY
Fred Plum, MD
University Professor Emeritus
Department of Neurology and Neuroscience
Weill Cornell Medical College
New York, NY
1
2007
1
Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further
Oxford University’s objective of excellence
in research, scholarship, and education.
Oxford New York
Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi
New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto
With offices in
Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece
Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam
Copyright # 2007 by Oxford University Press, Inc.
Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.
198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016
www.oup.com
Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Plum and Posner’s diagnosis of stupor and coma / Jerome B. Posner . . . [et al.]. — 4th ed.
p. ; cm.—(Contemporary neurology series ; 71)
Rev. ed. of: The diagnosis of stupor and coma / Fred Plum, Jerome B. Posner. 3rd ed. c1980.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-532131-9
1. Coma—Diagnosis. 2. Stupor—Diagnosis. I. Posner, Jerome B., 1932– II. Plum, Fred, 1924–
Diagnosis of stupor and coma. III. Title: Diagnosis of stupor and coma. IV. Series.
[DNLM: 1. Coma—diagnosis. 2. Stupor—diagnosis. 3. Brain Diseases—diagnosis.
4. Brain Injuries—diagnosis.
W1 CO769N v.71 2007 / WB 182 P7335 2007]
RB150.C6P55 2007
616.8'49—dc22
2006103219
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
Jerome Posner, Clifford Saper and Nicholas Schiff dedicate this book to
Fred Plum, our mentor. His pioneering studies into coma and its
pathophysiology made the first edition of this book possible and
have contributed to all of the subsequent editions, including this one.
His insistence on excellence, although often hard to attain, has been
an inspiration and a guide for our careers.
The authors also dedicate this book to our wives, whose encouragement
and support make our work not only possible but also pleasant.
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Fred Plum came to the University of Washington in 1952 to head up the Division of
Neurology (in the Department of Medicine) that consisted of one person, Fred. The
University had no hospital but instead used the county hospital (King County Hospital),
now called Harborview. The only emergency room in the entire county was at that hos-
pital, and thus it received all of the comatose patients in the area. The only noninva-
sive imaging available was primitive ultrasound that could identify, sometimes, whether
the pineal gland was in the midline. Thus, Fred and his residents (August Swanson,
Jerome Posner, and Donald McNealy, in that order) searched for clinical ways to dif-
ferentiate those lesions that required neurosurgical intervention from those that required
medical treatment. The result was the first edition of The Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma.
Times have changed. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance ima-
ging (MRI) have revolutionized the approach to the patient with an altered level of
consciousness. The physician confronted with such a patient usually first images the
brain and then if the image does not show a mass or destructive lesion, pursues a careful
metabolic workup. Even the laboratory evaluation has changed. In the 1950s the only
pH meter in the hospital was in our experimental laboratory and many of the metabolic
tests that we now consider routine were time consuming and not available in a timely
fashion. Yet the clinical approach taught in The Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma remains
the cornerstone of medical care for comatose patients in virtually every hospital, and the
need for a modern updating of the text has been clear for some time.
The appearance of a fourth edition now called Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of
Stupor and Coma more than 25 years after the third edition is deserving of comment.
There were several reasons for this delay. First, the introduction and rapid development
of MRI scanning almost immediately after the publication of the last edition both
stimulated the authors to prepare a new edition and also delayed the efforts, as new
information using the new MRI methods accumulated at a rapid pace and dramatically
changed the field over the next decade. At the same time, there was substantial progress
in theory on the neural basis of consciousness, and the senior author wanted to incor-
porate as much of that new material as possible into the new edition. A second obstacle
to the early completion of a fourth edition was the retirement of the senior author, who
also developed some difficulty with expressive language. It became apparent that the
senior author was not going to be able to complete the new edition with the eloquence
for which he had been known. Ultimately, the two original authors asked two of their
proteges, CBS and NDS, to help with the preparation of the new edition. Fred parti-
cipated in the initial drafts of this edition, but not fully in the final product. Thus, the
mistakes and wrongheaded opinions you might find in this edition are ours and not his.
We as his students feel privileged to be able to continue and update his classic work.
One of our most important goals was to retain the clear and authoritative voice of the
senior author in the current revision. Even though much of the text has been rewritten,
we worked from the original organizational and conceptual context of the third edition.
Fred Plum’s description of how one examines an unconscious patient was, and is, clas-
sic. Accordingly, we’ve tried whenever possible to use his words from the first three
editions. Because the clinical examination remains largely unchanged, we could use
some of the case reports and many of the figures describing the clinical examination from
previous editions. Fred was present at each of the critical editorial meetings, and he
continued to contribute to the overall structure and scientific and clinical content of the
book. Most important, he instilled his ideas and views into each of the other authors,
whom he taught and mentored over many years. The primary writing tasks for the first
four chapters fell to CBS, Chapters 5 to 7 to JBP, and Chapters 8 and 9 to NDS. However,
each of the chapters was passed back and forth and revised and edited by each of the
authors, so that the responsibility for the content of the fourth edition remains joint and
several.
Most important, although the technologic evaluation of patients in coma has
changed in ways that were unimaginable at the time of publication of the earlier edi-
tions, the underlying principles of evaluation and management have not. The exam-
ination of the comatose patient remains the cornerstone to clinical judgment. It is much
faster and more accurate than any imaging study, and accurate clinical assessment is
necessary to determine what steps are required for further evaluation, to determine the
tempo of the workup, and most important, to identify those patients in critical condition
who need emergency intervention. Coma remains a classic problem in neurology, in
which intervention within minutes can often make the difference between life and death
for the patient. In this sense, the fourth edition of Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor
and Coma does not differ from its predecessors in offering a straightforward approach
to diagnosis and management of these critically ill patients.
The authors owe a debt of gratitude to many colleagues who have helped us prepare
this edition of the book. Dr. Joe Fins generously contributed a section on ethics to
Chapter 8 that the other authors would not have otherwise been able to provide. Chap-
ters were reviewed at various stages of preparation by Drs. George Richerson, Michael
Ronthal, Jonathan Edlow, Richard Wolfe, Josef Parvizi, Matt Fink, Richard Lappin,
Steven Laureys, Marcus Yountz, Veronique van der Horst, Amy Amick, Nicholas Sil-
vestri, and John Whyte. These colleagues have helped us avoid innumerable missteps.
The remaining errors, however, are our own. Drs. Jonathan Kleefield and Linda Heier
have provided us with radiologic images and Dr. Jeffrey Joseph with pathological images.
The clarity of their vision has contributed to our own, and illuminates many of the ideas
in this book. We also thank Judy Lampron, who read the entire book correcting typos,
spelling errors (better than spellcheck), and awkward sentences. We owe our gratitude
to a series of patient editors at Oxford University Press who have worked with the authors
as we have prepared this edition. Included among these are Fiona Stevens, who worked
with us on restarting the project, and Craig Panner, who edited the final manuscript. Sid
Gilman, the series editor, has provided continuous support and encouragement.
Finally, we want to thank the members of our families, who have put up with our
intellectual reveries and physical absences as we have prepared the material in this
book. It has taken much more time than any of us had expected, but it has been a labor
of love.
Fred Plum, MD
Jerome B. Posner, MD
Clifford B. Saper, MD, PhD
Nicholas D. Schiff, MD
viii
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Contents
1. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF COMA 3
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 3
DEFINITIONS 5
Consciousness
Acutely Altered States of Consciousness
Subacute or Chronic
Alterations of Consciousness
APPROACH TO THE DIAGNOSIS OF THE COMATOSE PATIENT 9
PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CONSCIOUSNESS
AND COMA 11
The Ascending Arousal System
Behavioral State Switching
Relationship of
Coma to Sleep
The Cerebral Hemispheres and Conscious Behavior
Structural
Lesions That Cause Altered Consciousness in Humans
2. EXAMINATION OF THE COMATOSE PATIENT 38
OVERVIEW 38
HISTORY 39
GENERAL PHYSICAL EXAMINATION 40
LEVEL OF CONSCIOUSNESS 40
ABC: AIRWAY, BREATHING, CIRCULATION 42
Circulation
Respiration
PUPILLARY RESPONSES 54
Examine the Pupils and Their Responses
Pathophysiology of Pupillary Responses:
Peripheral Anatomy of the Pupillomotor System
Pharmacology of the Peripheral
Pupillomotor System
Localizing Value of Abnormal Pupillary Responses
in Patients in Coma
Metabolic and Pharmacologic Causes of Abnormal
Pupillary Response
OCULOMOTOR RESPONSES 60
Functional Anatomy of the Peripheral Oculomotor System
Functional Anatomy of the
Central Oculomotor System
The Ocular Motor Examination
Interpretation of
Abnormal Ocular Movements
MOTOR RESPONSES 72
Motor Tone
Motor Reflexes
Motor Responses
FALSE LOCALIZING SIGNS IN PATIENTS WITH
METABOLIC COMA 75
Respiratory Responses
Pupillary Responses
Ocular Motor Responses
Motor
Responses
ix
MAJOR LABORATORY DIAGNOSTIC AIDS 77
Blood and Urine Testing
Computed Tomography Imaging and
Angiography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Angiography
Magnetic
Resonance Spectroscopy
Neurosonography
Lumbar
Puncture
Electroencephalography and Evoked Potentials
3. STRUCTURAL CAUSES OF STUPOR AND COMA 88
COMPRESSIVE LESIONS AS A CAUSE OF COMA 89
COMPRESSIVE LESIONS MAY DIRECTLY DISTORT
THE AROUSAL SYSTEM 90
Compression at Different Levels of the Central Nervous System Presents in Distinct
Ways
The Role of Increased Intracranial Pressure in Coma
The Role of Vascular
Factors and Cerebral Edema in Mass Lesions
HERNIATION SYNDROMES: INTRACRANIAL SHIFTS IN
THE PATHOGENESIS OF COMA 95
Anatomy of the Intracranial Compartments
Patterns of Brain Shifts That Contribute to
Coma
Clinical Findings in Uncal Herniation Syndrome
Clinical Findings in Central
Herniation Syndrome
Clinical Findings in Dorsal Midbrain Syndrome
Safety of
Lumbar Puncture in Comatose Patients
False Localizing Signs in the Diagnosis
of Structural Coma
DESTRUCTIVE LESIONS AS A CAUSE OF COMA 114
DIFFUSE, BILATERAL CORTICAL DESTRUCTION 114
DESTRUCTIVE DISEASE OF THE DIENCEPHALON 114
DESTRUCTIVE LESIONS OF THE BRAINSTEM 115
4. SPECIFIC CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL COMA 119
INTRODUCTION 120
SUPRATENTORIAL COMPRESSIVE LESIONS 120
EPIDURAL, DURAL, AND SUBDURAL MASSES 120
Epidural Hematoma
Subdural Hematoma
Epidural Abscess/Empyema
Dural and
Subdural Tumors
SUBARACHNOID LESIONS 129
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Subarachnoid Tumors
Subarachnoid Infection
INTRACEREBRAL MASSES 135
Intracerebral Hemorrhage
Intracerebral Tumors
Brain Abscess and Granuloma
INFRATENTORIAL COMPRESSIVE LESIONS 142
EPIDURAL AND DURAL MASSES 143
Epidural Hematoma
Epidural Abscess
Dural
and Epidural Tumors
SUBDURAL POSTERIOR FOSSA COMPRESSIVE LESIONS 144
Subdural Empyema
Subdural Tumors
x
Contents
SUBARACHNOID POSTERIOR FOSSA LESIONS 145
INTRAPARENCHYMAL POSTERIOR FOSSA MASS LESIONS 145
Cerebellar Hemorrhage
Cerebellar Infarction
Cerebellar Abscess
Cerebellar
Tumor
Pontine Hemorrhage
SUPRATENTORIAL DESTRUCTIVE LESIONS CAUSING COMA 151
VASCULAR CAUSES OF SUPRATENTORIAL
DESTRUCTIVE LESIONS 152
Carotid Ischemic Lesions
Distal Basilar Occlusion
Venous Sinus
Thrombosis
Vasculitis
INFECTIONS AND INFLAMMATORY CAUSES OF SUPRATENTORIAL
DESTRUCTIVE LESIONS 156
Viral Encephalitis
Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis
CONCUSSION AND OTHER TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES 159
Mechanism of Brain Injury During Closed Head Trauma
Mechanism of Loss of
Consciousness in Concussion
Delayed Encephalopathy After Head Injury
INFRATENTORIAL DESTRUCTIVE LESIONS 162
BRAINSTEM VASCULAR DESTRUCTIVE DISORDERS 163
Brainstem Hemorrhage
Basilar Migraine
Posterior Reversible
Leukoencephalopathy Syndrome
INFRATENTORIAL INFLAMMATORY DISORDERS 169
INFRATENTORIAL TUMORS 170
CENTRAL PONTINE MYELINOLYSIS 171
5. MULTIFOCAL, DIFFUSE, AND METABOLIC BRAIN DISEASES
CAUSING DELIRIUM, STUPOR, OR COMA 179
CLINICAL SIGNS OF METABOLIC ENCEPHALOPATHY 181
CONSCIOUSNESS: CLINICAL ASPECTS 181
Tests of Mental Status
Pathogenesis of the Mental Changes
RESPIRATION 187
Neurologic Respiratory Changes Accompanying Metabolic Encephalopathy
Acid-Base
Changes Accompanying Hyperventilation During Metabolic Encephalopathy
Acid-Base
Changes Accompanying Hypoventilation During Metabolic Encephalopathy
PUPILS 192
OCULAR MOTILITY 193
MOTOR ACTIVITY 194
‘‘Nonspecific’’ Motor Abnormalities
Motor Abnormalities Characteristic
of Metabolic Coma
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS 197
Distinction Between Metabolic and Psychogenic Unresponsiveness
Distinction
Between Coma of Metabolic and Structural Origin
Contents
xi
ASPECTS OF CEREBRAL METABOLISM PERTINENT
TO COMA 198
CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW 198
GLUCOSE METABOLISM 202
Hyperglycemia
Hypoglycemia
ANESTHESIA 205
MECHANISMS OF IRREVERSIBLE ANOXIC-ISCHEMIC
BRAIN DAMAGE 206
Global Ischemia
Focal Ischemia
Hypoxia
EVALUATION OF NEUROTRANSMITTER CHANGES IN
METABOLIC COMA 208
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Gamma-Aminobutyric
Acid
Serotonin
Histamine
Glutamate
Norepinephrine
SPECIFIC CAUSES OF METABOLIC COMA 210
ISCHEMIA AND HYPOXIA 210
Acute, Diffuse (or Global) Hypoxia or Ischemia
Intermittent or Sustained
Hypoxia
Sequelae of Hypoxia
DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE OR COFACTOR AVAILABILITY 220
Hypoglycemia
Hyperglycemia
Cofactor Deficiency
DISEASES OF ORGAN SYSTEMS OTHER THAN BRAIN 224
Liver Disease
Renal Disease
Pulmonary Disease
Pancreatic
Encephalopathy
Diabetes Mellitus
Adrenal Disorders
Thyroid
Disorders
Pituitary Disorders
Cancer
EXOGENOUS INTOXICATIONS 240
Sedative and Psychotropic Drugs
Intoxication With Other Common
Medications
Ethanol Intoxication
Intoxication With Drugs of Abuse
Intoxication
With Drugs Causing Metabolic Acidosis
ABNORMALITIES OF IONIC OR ACID-BASE ENVIRONMENT
OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 251
Hypo-osmolar States
Hyperosmolar States
Calcium
Other
Electrolytes
Disorders of Systemic Acid-Base Balance
DISORDERS OF THERMOREGULATION 259
Hypothermia
Hyperthermia
INFECTIOUS DISORDERS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM: BACTERIAL 262
Acute Bacterial Leptomeningitis
Chronic Bacterial Meningitis
INFECTIOUS DISORDERS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM: VIRAL 266
Overview of Viral Encephalitis
Acute Viral Encephalitis
Dostları ilə paylaş: |