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with a traveler Raphael Hythloday by name. In the first part writer describes what Hythloday thinks of
England. The traveler attacks the chief political and social evils of country: private property, the cruel
laws and poverty. In the second part Hythloday describes an unknown land Utopia. It is described as
an ideal country. It’s the first wok in which the ideas of communism appeared.
During this period literature and art developed. Drama became a popular genre of literature.
Drama was divided into tragedy and comedy. The greatest playwrights of this period are men of
academic learning, the so-called UNIVERSITY WITS. The main representatives of University Wits
are Christopher Marlowe, Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser. Marlowe is famous for his “Doctor
Faustus” which is considered to be the best of his works. Philip Sidney is famous for his theoretical
work “Apology for poetry”. In this work he polemiced with the Puritans who denied poetry. His other
work is called “Astrophel and Stella” which is the first Elizabethan sonnet cycles. The other
representative, Edmund Spenser is famous with his allegorical poem “Fairy Queen”.
The Golden Ages of this period. These were the years of great changes; towns developed,
science, industry and trade flourished. William Shakespeare (1564-1616) is the greatest dramatist and
poet of this period. He is considered one of the best playwrights of the world literature. He is famous
for his tragedies, chronicles, farces, 37 plays of all kinds of comedies, 154 sonnets and 5 long poems.
This figure is famous not only because of his talent and masterpieces in literature, but for his
enigmatic life, as well. Only some general facts are known about him and his life, but the certain part
of his life is still covered with mystery. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon on 23
rd
April, 1564.
In 1593- 1594 he published his two long poems- “Venus and Adonis” and “Lucrece”. Both
poems were dedicated to the young Earl of Southampton, a great of admirer of Shakespeare’s plays.
When he printed his poems he was known as a writer of successful plays, not as a poet. His career as a
dramatist lasted 21 years.
By the year 1589 people talked about Shakespeare not only as a poet and a playwright, but also
as an actor. Later he joined “The Lord Chamberlain’s Men” – this was a really famous acting troupe in
London. In 1599 this troupe lost lease of the theatre called “The Theatre”. They had enough money to
build their own theater - “The Globe”. It was opened in July 1599. The motto of it was: “Totus
mundus agit historionem” – meaning “a whole world of players” (J. Bate, 85). By the year 1603 James
the first came to throne and the troupe was renamed into “King’s Men”.
Shakespeare’s literary period divided into three parts: optimistic, pessimistic, and romantic
periods.
Optimistic period (1590-1601) – he wrote his poems, historical plays, comedies, two tragedies
“Romeo and Juliet”, “Julius Caesar” and sonnets. Sonnets were first introduced to England in XVI
century by Shakespeare. They were dedicated to the so-called “dark lady” and his young friend.
In this period W. Shakespeare wrote his famous poems, that, they are: Love’s Labour’s lost, The
Comedy of Errors, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, A Midsummer-Night’s dream, The Merchant of
Venice, The Taming of the Shrew, Much ado about nothing, The Merry Wives of Windsor, As you
like it, Twelfth night.
This period is also known its historical plays, as, King Henry VI, The tragedy of King Richard
III, Titus Andronicus, The tragedy of King Richard II, The life and death of King John, King Henry
IV, the life of King Henry V.
Pessimistic period (1601-1608) – Shakespeare’s famous tragedies belong to this period, which
are, “Hamlet”, “Othello” (racism crops up by author), “King Lear”, “Macbeth”, “Antony and
Cleopatra”, “Troilus and Cressida”, “Moor of Venice”, “Coriolanus”, “Timon of Athens”. “Hamlet” is
a tragedy of humanist. The Monologue “To be or not to be” belongs to this tragedy.
Main comedies of pessimistic period are: All’s well that Ends Well, Measure of Measure,
Pericles.
Romantic period (1608-1612) – His four famous plays belong to this period. They are:
Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, The Tempest, Henry VIII. Cardenio is his lost play.
W. Shakespeare’s Superiority over his contemporaries consist the variety of his gifts. Robert
Green described W. Shakespeare as an “upstart young crow”. Four years before his death, he stopped
his literary career and died in 1616.
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THE XIX CENTURY CRITICAL REALISM
Aynur DADASHOVA
Qafqaz University
adadasova@qu.edu.az
AZERBAIJAN
In the XIX century most of the writers were critical realists. The writers showed a realistic picture
of their contemporary England. In their works they reflected the class division of society, the
explanation of the poor by the rich, social injustice and the struggle of workers against oppression. The
representatives of the XIX century Critical Realism are; Charles Dickens, Makepeace Thackeray,
Elizabeth Gaskell, Charlotte Bronte, Anna Bronte, Emily Bronte, George Eliot.
One of the greatest novelist is Charles Dickens. He published a collection of stories and sketches
of London life entitled by “Sketches by Boz” in 1835. In “Pickwick Papers” Dickens seems to see
things in an amusing and exaggerated way. Dickens became famous all over the world. Dickens’s first
social novel is “The Adventures of Oliver Twist”. It shows the life of the workhouses, the London
slums, poverty and crime here. The hero of this novel is Oliver Twist, a miserable, poor and aunhappy
child. His mother dies and he grows up in a workhouse where eight of every ten children die of hunger
and cold. Through Oliver’s character Dickens wanted to show that people could not be spoiled if they
were born good and honest. With “Nicholas Nickleby” Dickens appeared not only as an entertainer,
but also as a great novelist. This book deals with the problem of education of children in English
private schools for poor children. Dickens published “The Old Curiosity Shop” and “Barnaby Rudge”
before his visit to America. After his return from America Dickens wrote “American notes” (1842)
and “Martin Chuzzlewit” (1843-1844) which created a sensation in America. They were social satires
of the American way of life. Between 1843 and 1848 Dickens published his “Christmas Books” (“A
Christmas Carol”, The Chimes”, “The Cricket on the Hearth”). In 1846 he visited Switzerland and
Italy, there wrote “Dombey and Son” (1848). After “Hard Times “he wrote “David Copperfield” and
“Bleak –House”.
In “Hard Times” he gives this theme a special emphasis. He shows capitalist exploitation, the
contradictions between workers and manufacturers as well as the beginning of the struggle between
the proletariat and the capitalist system. The second theme of the novel is the system of education.
“David Copperfield” is Dickens’s autobiographical novel and tells of David’s fate. David is the
hero of the novel and the narrator. He is an orphan and is cruelly treated by his stepfather. After his
mother’s death David has to earn his own living until he reaches his rough and strange looking aunt
Betsy Trotwood. She takes care of her nephew and David receives a good education and becomes a
lawyer and a writer. “Dombey and Son” deals with money and the things that go with money-power,
position and so on. Here the symbol of money-power is Mr.Dombey himself. He thinks he can buy
everything even an artistic young woman for his second wife. But Mr.Dombey goes bankrupt: he is
punished for his pride. “Little Dorrit” makes the reader realize that society itself is only another and
much larger prison.“A tale of Two Cities” deals with French revolution. Dickens completed his other
two novels “Great Expectations” and “Our Mutual Friend” before his death and left unfinished the
manuscript of “The Mystery of Edwin Drood”.
The second greatest novelist is W.Thackeray. W.M Thackeray is known as an essayist and a
novelist. His essays: “The English Humorists” and “The Four Georges”. His first book is “The Book
of Snobs”. In this novel he gives a satirical description of the ruling classes of England: aristocracy,
the landed nobility, thebourgeoisie and military officers. The writer is against British imperialism,
defends oppressed Ireland, criticizes the monarchy and bourgeoisie and shows his dislike in satire.
W.M Thackeray’s novels: “ Vanity fair”, “Pendennis”, “ The History of Henri Esmond”, “The
Newcomes”, “The Virginians”. “Vanity Fair” is a classic example of social satire. It is notable for its
clear-sighted realism, simple style, attractive humor, biting satire and deep insight into human heart.
The novelist called the society “Vanity Fair” where everything could be sold and bought. He turned
his satire against the vanity of the upper classes, the baseness of their aspirations, the power of money,
ranks and titles.
In this century the third famous novelist is George Eliot and her pen name is Mary Ann Evans.
Her early work is regarded “Scenes of Clerical Life” which had an immediate success. “Adam Bede”,
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“The Mill on the Floss”, “Silas Marner”, “Romola”, “Felis Holt, The Radical”, “The Spanish Gipsy”,
“Middlemarch”, “Daniel Deronda” are her successful works. George Eliot has sometimes been
described as the first modern English novelist. She deals with mostly the problems of religion and
mortality. She believes that all social contradictions could be solved by “religion of the heart” and
“moral law”. Her most widely read book is “The Mill on the Floss”. It is an original study of
provincial life and the story of a brother and a sister.
The other representative Charlotte Bronte is famous for her three book “Jane Eyre”, “Shirley”
and “Villette”. Her first novel is “Professor” which was rejected by publishers. ”Jane Eyre” contains
all the elements that make up Charlotte’s conception of life. Charlotte Bronte combines scenes from
her own life with the far richer and more romantic experiences which she imagined in her novels. In
this period Emily Bronte is famous for her prose poem “Wuthering Heights”. The book is regarded as
one of the most remarkable novels in English literature. The author makes no distinction between the
supernatural and the natural. The other representative woman was Anne Bronte. Anne Bronte is less
known and her works are: “Agnes Grey” and “The Tenant of Wildfell Hall”, they cannot be ignored,
either.
Elizabeth Gaskell is also famous novelist of this period. She married young and lived a confined
life at Manchester during the first period of the Industrial Revolution and together with her husband,
made a study of Manchester workers. So she reflected their life in her first novel, “Mary Barton”. Her
other novels: “Ruth”, “Cranford”, “North and South”, “Sylvia’s lovers”, “Wives and Daughters”.
“Life of Charlotte Bronte” is her best biography. “Mary Barton” shows a pathetic picture of working-
class life in Manchester in hungry years of 1839-1841. Elizabeth Gaskell won praise from many
progressive writers for this work.
THE HISTORY OF MAGIC IN LITERATURE
Shafag ABDULLAYEVA
Qafqaz University
shafag994@gmail.com
AZERBAIJAN
What is Magic? Magic, a concept used to describe a mode of rationality or way of thinking that
looks to invisible forces to influence events, effect change in material conditions. Within the Western
tradition, this way of thinking is distinct from religious or scientific modes; however, such
discriminations and even the explanation of magic are subject to discuss.
The root word for magic (Greek: mageia; Latin: magia) comes from the Greek term magoi,
which refers to a Median tribe in Persia and their religion, Zoroastrianism. The Greco-Roman tradition
held that magicians possessed mysteriousknowledge and the capasity to channel power from or
through any of the polytheistic deities, spirits, or ancestors of the ancient pantheons. Indeed, many of
the traditions associated with magic in the Classical world derive from a fascination with
ancientMiddle Eastern beliefs and are concerned with a need for counter magic against sorcery. They
mainly
addressed
to
gods,
to
fire,
to
salt,
and
to
grain
are
recorded
from Mesopotamia and Egypt.Greco-Egyptian papyruses from the 1st to the 4th century, for example,
include magical recipes involving animals and animal substances, along with instructions for the ritual
preparations. Divination or foretelling took many forms—from the Etruscan art of haruspicina(reading
entrails of animal sacrifices) to the Roman practice of augury (interpreting the behaviour of birds)—
and was widely practiced as a means of determining propitious times to engage in specific activities; it
often played a role in political decision making. Ancient Roman society was particularly concerned
with sorcery and countersorcery, contests associated with the development of competitive new urban
classes whose members had to rely on their own efforts in both material and magical terms to defeat
their rivals and attain success.
Time to time this term classified as divination, astrology, incantations, alchemy, sorcery, spirit
mediation, and necromancy. The main goal of magic is to get knowledge, power, love, or wealth; to
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heal or turn aside illness or danger; to guarantee productivity; to cause harm to an enemy; to reveal
information; to cause spiritual transformation; to trick; or to entertain.Even modern magic for
entertainment retains a residual of the spell with its use of the term abracadabra.
From the ancient times there are several types of genres in literature that makes us exciting to
read. And magical events or incidents in any work draws attention of readers despite of their age.
Magic or magism is expressed various styles in literary works. One of them is Magic Realism.
Magic Realism is a literary movement. It is associated with a style of writing or a technique that
incorporates magical or supernatural (fantasy) events into a realistic event without questioning the
unlikelihood of these events taking place together. This combination of fantasy and fact is there to
question the nature of reality. Magic realism made lived experiences appear extraordinary.Magic
Realism is a movement that has been misunderstood for many years by many people. It still remains a
vague term today though. A large part of the problem of this movement being misunderstood is related
to applying the term, Magic Realism, to different art forms and in different periods. Magic realism is
applied to two main movements, art and literature, and has recently been applied to works in cinema.
The term Magic Realism was applied to paintings from the early 1920's through to the end of the
1950's. Magic Realism is realism that incorporates mysterious or fantastic elements but it still portrays
everyday life. The time period of the 1960's was when Magic Realism was applied to literature. The
usage of Magic Realism has recently been expanded to include works of different origins and works of
earlier periods. Most of this literature features considerable amounts of fantasy therefore it is a
different type of Magic Realism to the one that had been established in art in the 1920's Magic realism
is starting to develop an interest today that it had never commanded during the movement's first half of
the 20th century. Different sets of standards are used today to define Magic Realism in literature; this
is causing confusion about what criteria is applied to contemporary work.
The counter movement to Magic Realism came to be known as the "Return to Order" or the "Call
of Order". The default approach of Magic Realism is to focus on the coexistence of the real and
fantasy on equal terms. The power of Magic Realism has often been assumed to "lie" to the viewer in
the way that the differences between these incompatible elements are erased/not shown. One should
always remember that Magic Realism cannot be seen as Science Fiction. Magic Realism is everyday
life and it is all around us, all the time. Magic realism has changed the way that people think. Magic
Realism brings a spark of life to the imagination instead of people seeing the boring and ordinary, and
this then in turn brings excitement to the minds of the reader or the viewer.
TRACES OF BRITISH ROMANTICISM IN HISTORY
Aysel VALIYEVA
Qafqaz University
ayselveliyeva1984@gmail.com
AZERBAIJAN
The first I would like to speak about “what is romanticism”. It is important to understand the
meaning of the romanticmovement in order to comprehend the dominating spirit of the next age. The
best short definition of romanticism is “liberalism in literature”. Although this definition is
incomplete, it has the merit of covering all kinds of romantic movements.
Romanticism has very little to do with things popularly thought of as”romantic”, although love
may occasionally be the subject of Romantic art. Rather, it is an international artistic and philosophical
movement that redefined the fundamental ways in which people in Western cultures thought about
themselves and about their world. Two great movements determined the course of English nineteenth-
century life and literature-the Romantic revolution and its Industrial counterpart. Each had originated
in England and would reach its highest point on English soil and for a while they co-existed
peacefully. Romantic tourists found as much to admire in mines factories and blast-furnaces as in
torrents lakes and mountains, both types of landscape might be equally picturesque and afford the
same inspiring prospects.
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Meanwhile, the Romantic movement had not lost its strength despite its changing social
background. Tennyson and Browning were directly descended from the earlier race of poets. Though
Pope shows traces of Romantic feeling, and Walpole and Beckford had written “Gothick” fantasies,
the movement had not finally taken shape, as a decisive literary force, until Wordsworth and Coleridge
published their Lyrical Ballads.
British Romanticism helps us to gain some ideas as to its inner nature and the mental forces
governing it.British Romanticism is not one artistic principle in conflict with another. If Wordsworth
and Coleridge do share for a brief moment a controversial doctrine, their agreement very quickly gives
way before their temperamental differences and none of the writers whom posterity classes with them
or among their immediate successors follows their example on the point.
British Romanticism does not consist in the triumph of “self”. The personality of the writer has a
characteristic place in it, becausesensibility and imagination are of the very essence of individuality,
whilst intelligence tends to the general.
There were six main romantic writers who played significant roles in formulation and
development of the British Romanticism as a trend in history .These six main romantic writers are
W.Blake,W.Wordsworth,S.T.Coleridge,P.B.Shelley, Lord Byron and J.Keats.
W.Blake belonged to the first generation of Romantic poets whose hatred of the abominations of
a fast growing capitalist civilization went hand in hand with enthusiasm for the French
Revolution,which,they hoped,would pave the way to brotherhood and equality.
Wordsworth is one of the domineering figure of British Romanticism.He was good friends with
Coleridge and they anonymously published a collection of poems entitled Lyrical Ballads. Many
critics cite the publication of this volume as the true beginning of the Romantic Period. In Coleridge’s
poetry the mystical and supernatural are not merely a means of stylization or a tribute to folk-lore. In
his case they are indeed fundamental and play a complex role.
Romantic poets believe that only imagination can reveal the truth and give them insight into the
life of things. When it is at work, it sees things to which reason is blind. To Coleridge, an imaginative
mind is “the image of the Creator”.
J.Keats differed from the senior writers, in his belief that poetry should not be made a direct
expression of political creeds, necessarily temporary and changing, but should strive to give scope to
eternal passions and to beauty.
Romantics find their initial inspiration in Nature, in which God has manifested Himself.They
take their symbols from Nature and use them to interpret the unseen. In spite of their belief in the
creative power of imagination, Romantic poets have different views of genius, artistic education,
subject matter, style, the aim of poetry, and the nature of poetry and poet.
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