Consider Her Ways
, this technique suggests that there is some room for
human error in the translation and observation of the subject species.
Furthermore, Gowdy uses an alliterative family naming system (the She-S
family: She-Swaggers, She-Sees, She-Spoils; the She-D family: She-Deflates,
She-Demands, She-Distracts) similar to that of researchers like Cynthia Moss.
This alludes to the presence of an observing human and the possibility that the
novel
is a researcher’s study rather than a fictional story. Although subtle, we
find the legacy of the wild animal story’s implicit construction as anecdotal
evidence. On the whole, however, the omniscient narration would seem to
undermine the presence of an external human narrator. So, whilst Gowdy does
not employ the subjective human observer technique used in
Consider
, there is
‘translation’ at work, nonetheless. Indeed, we might perceive the whole novel as
a translation; a translation of the nonhuman world into something palatable and
comprehensible to the human reader.
Allmark-Kent 223
As Tiffin and Huggan imply, although the
‘talking animal’ would seem to
distance us from perceiving these elephants
as elephants
, the richness of
Gowdy’s zoocentric speculation might not be possible otherwise. As we have
seen, it is difficult for the more realistic works of Bodsworth or Lawrence to
critique anthropocentrism from
a nonhuman perspective
. The unspoken
questions
of Bodworth’s curlew achieved some critique of human mistreatment
of nonhuman life, but it is subtle compared to the overt condemnation of
Grove’s ants. Gowdy’s complex talking elephants observe and judge humans to
be savage, violent brutes. As I have demonstrated, the defamiliarization of
speciesism and human violence is one of the wild animal story’s crucial
techniques. These scenes often rely on the disturbing juxtaposition between the
protagonist (or their family) depicted as
subject of a life
and as
an object of
utility
. Whilst in realistic texts these scenes still carry a strong critique, the
animal victims of speculative texts are empowered to observe and judge the
humans, providing a uniquely zoocentric defamiliarization
. Gowdy’s critique is
strongest during the depiction of a massacre in which two different elephant
families lose most of their members. The two families had been relaxing and
enjoying a watering hole (a rare opportunity during a drought) when they first
scent the vehicle, and whilst alert, they do not move off immediately. Suddenly
however:
[the vehicle] bellows over the bank in a swell of dust as though, despite
being upwind, it scented them from the plain. Before it fully stops, the
humans leap out. She-Scares gives a dreadful roar. She-Screams and
the calves start screaming. There is the rattle of gunshot and She-Scares
falls onto She-Demands. With hyena-like yells the humans gallop into the
swamp, knees capering above the water, guns firing. (86)
Amongst the violence, the humans are disturbingly gleeful, playing and joking
whilst killing, and abusing the infant elephants:
Allmark-Kent 224
The human that shot She-Stam
mers flings a rope after Blue’s head [...]
He yanks on the rope, and Blue thrashes and squalls. Her twin sister,
Flow Sticks, rushes back to her. The human jumps astride Blue and kicks
her so brutally that her forelegs buckle. He goes on kicking until she
bolts. Her brief, bird-like screams alternate
with her sister’s quivering
screams, and the human riding her kicks and whoops and holds one
hand high. The other human howls. (87)
To the nonhuman perspective, the actions of the humans are inexplicable;
humans become predators whose behaviours are unprecedented in animal
experience, unpredictable and unknowable. Indeed, Tall Time confesses to
another elephant that he has lost faith in elephant knowledge as a result of this
unprecedented destruction:
“‘Torrent, what use are the links if they do not warn
of such tragedies?’ ‘No link with which
you
are acquainted warned of such
tragedies’” (157).
With distressing dramatic irony, we know what the elephants
do not: we as readers understand the trade in ivory, we understand that a car is
a machine not an animal, we understand the hunter’s imitation of a
cowboy but
through the defamiliarizing effect of the elephant view point, their actions
become inexplicable to us t
oo. There is no answer, no excuse ‘good enough’ for
the unnecessary slaughter of so many unique individuals with whom the reader
has become so closely acquainted
. As with Bodsworth’s confused, interrogating
curlew and the horror of Grove’s ants at the exploitative relationship between
pig and farmer, we hold the guilty knowledge that the nonhumans do not. We
sympathize with the animals but are uncomfortably complicit with the humans.
In contrast to the threat of ivory poachers
—a plight faced by real
elephants
—the reader’s intense sympathy for the elephants may be
undermined by Gowdy’s use of the ‘supernatural.’ Oerleman comments that the
novel reveals “the horrors of butchering complex conscious beings,” yet the
“range of anthropomorphism can strain credulity to such a degree that it
undermines the novel’s seemingly serious ambitions about environmental ethics
Allmark-Kent 225
and animal consciousness” (190). Whilst I agree with Oerleman to some extent,
I would add that
Gowdy’s attribution of ‘magical abilities’ to some of her
elephants serves a practical purpose. It is worth noting first that telepathy and
prescience
are rare in Gowdy’s elephants. Typically each herd has one
visionary and one ‘mind talker.’ Whilst telepathic elephants are able to hear the
thoughts of their own kind, their primary function is to facilitate communication
with other species.
Gowdy states explicitly that the mind talker “understands the
language of most other creatures,” (23) demonstrating that her speculation
extends beyond elephants. She even gives each species distinct ‘voices’ and
styles of communication:
Imparting any kind of general information, they [mongooses] tend to
chorus out loud, everybody delivering roughly the same phrase and
starting and stopping at roughly the same moment. Their speech is
twittering in which words are repeated two and three times: ‘Sing, sing,
sing the song, song about, the song about the hot, the hot, the hot, hot,
hot fight, fight, fight.’ […] They and the martial eagles couldn’t express
themselves more differently. Thinking and speaking, the eagles use as
few words as possible. ‘There.’ ‘How long?’ They prefer to gesture. (271-
2)
Significantly, the elephants communicate with the greatest eloquence. Gowdy
seems to imply an intellectual hierarchy, although it is possible that the
languages of other animals are less coherent because we receive a ‘translation’
from an elephant; if they are confusing to Date Bed, they will be confusing to us.
Humans, insects, and snakes are excluded from the reach of elephant
telepathy, however (23). It is significant that these nonhuman species are some
of those with which we have the most difficulty empathizing and, therefore, we
are least willing to recognize as intelligent, emotional beings. These specific
rejections seem to be informed by speciesism and may betray the limits of
Gowdy’s own empathy. Similarly, I argue that the use of ‘magic’ in animal
literature (also
seen in Grove’s use of telepathy and Baird’s use of visions)
Allmark-Kent 226
reveals the limits of human imagination and understanding. A complex plot
appears to necessitate complex nonhuman communication. As discussed
above, Gowdy deals with elephant language in a number of ways but it seems
that these techniques are deemed insufficient for interspecies exchanges. This
use of the supernatural is practical and allows for Gowdy’s engagement with the
minds of animals other than elephants, however, it also alludes to the mystical
‘otherness’ of animals. To suggest that nonhuman beings all have the magical
power to communicate telepathically with each other reinstates the animal-
human divide and homogenizes the great diversity of nonhuman life. Gowdy
does not go this far since only one elephant per herd can
‘mind talk’ and only to
certain species. It is also possible to see telepathy and prescience as part of her
imaginative leap, her recognition of all that we do not know and the possibility
that animals possess senses or abilities that we do not. To borrow Raglon and
Scholtmeijer’s words, as noted, Gowdy’s inclusion of the supernatural could
also be part of her “challenge [to] human ‘knowledge’ by imagining other
possibilities” (135). The presence of the supernatural becomes more frequent,
however, towards the end of the novel and is not restricted to rare cases of
telepathy and prescience. Here Gowdy’s use of the magical seems to suggests
a diversion from her
“attempt, however presumptuous, to make a huge
imag
inative leap” (Gowdy/Siciliano). As observed in my discussion of Seton’s
and Roberts’ occasional emphasis on ‘animal heroes,’ this inclusion of the
mystical may seem to reveal a problematic sense that the species-typical
animal is ‘not enough,’ even for zoocentric fiction.
Oerleman
’s reading of the novel centres upon “the intrinsic
embarrassment of the anthropomorphic act itself” and its ability to “force
readers to recognize the limits of our belief about other animals, to draw and
Allmark-Kent 227
redraw the boundary between human and other animals species, and individual
animals” (195). Oerleman recognizes that there are different types of
anthropomorphism
: firstly, “the realistic (scientific), based on actual
observation,” which is categorized as anthropomorphism due to the high level of
intentionality attributed to the behaviours; secondly, “the plausibly hypothetical
(conjectures reasonably based on curr
ent knowledge),” which comes closest to
my own concept of speculative representation; and finally, the “implausible and
fantastical, which ultimately define the limits of anthropomorphism” (190). His
notion of the speculative is much stricter than my own and as such, he regards
the elephant culture and religion as part of the third category rather than the
second. Nonetheless, in terms of Gowdy’s use of magic, I agree with Oerleman:
“there are almost certainly moments which will provoke disbelief, even scorn”
(195).
Towards the end of the novel, Gowdy places increasing emphasis on the
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