zoocentric.
Again, his
detailed descriptions indicate cognitive and social complexity, as well as the
obvious survival advantage for the young pumas. Furthermore, these
interactions also allow for a more complex exploration of nonhuman
communication. By prioritizing sensory experiences unique to the nonhuman
perspective of a puma, Lawrence emphasizes communication by scent, body
language, and vocalization. As I have demonstrated, the mother and her kittens
Allmark-Kent 185
constantly observe and interpret the minute, shifting movements and positions
of each other’s bodies. Likewise, the tawny puma also uses a range of specific
vocalizations, from “the special purr that summoned her children” (94) to the
soft growl of
the “alarm signal” (98). Yet, within the family, close proximity
negates the requirement for scent communication
—apart from the obvious
bodily scents that aid identification and bonding. Outside, however, the
longevity of odour enables a constant stream of information between individuals
and across species.
Lawrence’s repeated emphasis on this importance of scent as an entirely
nonhuman form of communication aids his creation o
f the pumas’ perspectives,
whilst also demonstrating the potential complexity of nonhuman networks of
interaction. When the tawny puma is “announcing her claim” to a new territory
by “stopping to spray nearby vegetation with her urine,” she is also stopping to
catalogue “the messages left by her competitors” (43-4). The semi-permanence
of scent (as opposed to communication by sight, sound, or movement) allows
for the depiction of a bodily ‘language.’ Importantly, Lawrence differentiates
between the odours left inadvertently by an animal’s mere presence, and those
left as intentional communication: “As the female entered the valley, she
detected a number of other scents. Grizzly bears had recently travelled the
male puma’s trails; so had wolves, and wolverines. All had left their identifiable
odors” (24). As these scents may have been messages between members of
each species, the puma cannot decode them, and so she merely makes a
catalogue of presences. Alternatively, Lawrence describes the format of the
intentional messages left by individuals of her own species:
As she herself did, members of her species invariably left markers that
advertised their claim to a range. These included urine sprays on rocks
and trees and fecal mounds, which were made by raking earth and
debris over their droppings. Such mounds are always present at the
Allmark-Kent 186
junction of puma trails, a dozen or more being usual in such locations,
the most recent giving off the most powerful scent. (147)
The careful positioning of urine sprays
—and the construction and location of
faecal mounds, in particular
—indicate intentionality. For instance, the tawny
puma protects her food by urinating nearby “to mark her ownership of the
carcass,” (96) while both mounds and sprays are essential communication for
mating: “she entered the range of a large male lion, knowing of his presence by
the debris-
covered scent mounds,” (23) “he backed off and sprayed urine
against the hillock […] [She] sniffed at the urine intently” (25). This
defamiliarizing use of excrement, which aids the construction of a nonhuman
perspective, is largely absent from the earlier texts
—although we do encounter
it in Barbara Gowdy’s
The White Bone
. It reveals a certain level of intelligence
and autonomy, while also building the richest and most complex image of
nonhuman networks seen in any wild ani
mal narrative. Lawrence’s animal
landscape is not ‘empty,’ it is densely layered with animal messages in a variety
of zoocentric, bodily languages.
It is significant that Lawrence’s pumas cannot interpret the intentional,
bodily messages of other species. He resists the anthropocentric myth that all
nonhumans can communicate across species boundaries
—as if all ‘speak’ a
universal ‘animal language’—and imagines how different animals would decode
each other’s scent, vocalizations, and body language. As indicated above, for
instance, the tawny puma cannot ‘read’ the messages of bears, wolves, or
wolverines, but she can still gain information from their scent trails. This cross-
species communication becomes more complex, however, when we consider
body language and vocalization. The abrupt silence of otherwise noisy birds,
intended to signal extreme danger to each other, carries meaning for other
species:
Allmark-Kent 187
The absence of their almost continuous melodies had been the signal to
all animals in the area, for during the daylight hours the tiny and
extremely cautious songsters still their collective voices only when they
are greatly alarmed. […] The puma had been waiting for the birds to
resume their calls. When they did so, she was totally convinced that all
was well. (128)
While the birds have little intention of communicating with the puma, who
certainly would be unable to understand the content of the calls, information
necessary for survival is transmitted and decoded, nonetheless. This ability to
observe and comprehend the signals of other species is also vital for the
puma’s success as a predator:
His labored respiration, his thin body and stiffened legs, and the awkward
way in which he bent his long neck to reach the water were all noted by
the cougars as they sighted their quarry. The moose was obviously old
and in poor condition. (162)
The puma’s knowledge and experience allow her to ‘read’ the behaviour and
body language of her prey, enabling her to target, directly, the ill or injured
members of the herd:
Taken as a whole, these signals caused the cat to select the laggard as
her target, for, like all predators when given the choice of several prey
animals at a time, she invariably chose the one whose behavior and
condition demonstrated physical weakness or emotional distress. (135)
Interestingly, unlike the authors of other wild animal narratives, Lawrence
indicates that the predator’s ability to choose carefully can be beneficial to prey
animal. After the death of the old moose described above, for instance,
Lawrence explains he was “twenty years old,” “arthritic,” and riddled with
parasites (164). Describing these in grim detail, as well as the long death that
would have taken “seven or eight days,” during which the moose would have
been deprived of “reason, causing him to run staggering and aimless through
the wilderness, smashing into trees and rocks and charging imaginary
enemies,” Lawrence concludes: “Death by the fangs and claws of three pumas,
although violent and gory, released him quickly” (164). Thus, Lawrence
Allmark-Kent 188
demonstrates that the inadvertent transfer of basic information across species
—
the moose’s body language signalling his condition as “poor” to the pumas—
can be beneficial to both predator and prey, as well as individuals and
populations.
As such,
Lawrence’s rich networks of meaningful interaction yield a much
more complex predator-prey relationship than we find depicted in the other
texts. Indeed this is one of the few major differences between
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