I türkoloji Qurultayın 90 illiyinə həsr olunmuş beynəlxalq konfrans



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На протяжении многих веков Османская империя вызывала живейший интерес у всего 

остального мира и являлась объектом пристального внимания и тщательного изучения. 

Многочисленные посольства и экспедиции были снаряжены для исследования не только 

политической, но и культурной жизни данного государства. Результатом этих путешествий 

явилось написание многочисленных мемуаров, описывающих жизнь империи «изнутри». 

Сейчас, эти мемуары позволяют нам составить представление об Османской империи не 


I Türkoloji Qurultayın 90 illiyinə həsr olunmuş beynəlxalq konfrans: 

 

TÜRKOLOJİ ELMİ-MƏDƏNİ HƏRƏKATDA ORTAQ DƏYƏRLƏR VƏ YENİ ÇAĞIRIŞLAR (I hissə) 



 

 

 



 

 

 



468

только через официальные хроники и документы, но и понаблюдать за ней «вживую», 

глазами будь, то простых путешественников, или участников важных для империи 

исторических событий, иностранцев разных социальных сословий и индивидуальных 

миссий. 

Особый интерес в этом плане представляют ряд мемуаров, в которых описание 

Османской империи 19 века дается через собственный опыт проживания авторов в этом 

государстве.  

Среди таких мемуаров в качестве примера можно привести мемуары графа 

Хельмута 

Карла 

Бернхарда фон Мольтке-старшего, германского генерал-фельдмаршала, военного 



теоретика, который наряду с 

Бисмарком и Рооном 

считается одним из основателей 

 

Германской империи 1871 года. Меритократия, появившаяся на Востоке задолго до Западной 



Европы, широко практиковалась в Османской империи, которая не раз приглашала 

иностранных специалистов для проведения в жизнь идей, заложенных в основу 

прогрессивных на то время реформ. 

Хельмут  Мольтке-старший был один из таких 

специалистов, приглашенных султаном Махмудом II в качестве военного советника. Кроме 

того, немалый интерес вызывают путевые заметки французского художника, иллюстратора и 

керамиста Теофила Дейроля. Начав свое путешествие на Восток с Турции в 1869 году, он 

прошел большое расстояние от Трабзона до Эрзурума, что нашло свое отражение в мемуарах 

и художественном альбоме зарисовок. Интересное описание жизни в Османской Турции 

можно также почерпнуть из мемуаров священнослужителей Американской и Английской 

христианской миссий Уильяма Гудела и Генри Кристмаса.  

Изучение данных мемуаров позволяет с различных сторон подойти к пониманию 

истории Османской империи 19 века: с военной точки зрения, с точки зрения религиозного 

плюрализма и с призмы бытовой жизни.  

 

 

 



Lalə İsmayılova 

 

QOPUZ ALƏTİ MÜXTƏLİF TÜRK XALQLARINDA 



 

Qopuzun yaranma tarixi eramızdan çox-çox əvvəllərə aid edilir. Alət haqqında ilk məlumata 

uyğur Koço dövlətinə elçi göndərilmiş Vanyen-Tenin (982 il) kitabında rast gəlirik. Uyğurların 

mahnı oxuyarkən çaldıqları əsas musiqi aləti qopuzdur. Güman ki, "qopuz" sözü etimoloji 

cəhətdən qop qədim türkcə "ucalıq", "yüksəklik", uz isə "avaz", "sehrli musiqi ahəngi" anlamını 

verir. Sözün başqa etimoloji açıqlamaları da olmuşdur. 

Mahmud Kaşqarlı qopuzu uda bənzər çalğı aləti kimi təqdim edir. Əldə olan bilgilərə əsasən 

ozanların, baxşıların, akınların, kayçıların, esençilərin istifadə etdikləri qopuzun müxtəlif növləri 

vardır. 

Qopuzi-rumi uda oxşar olub, beş tellidir. Bu, Kaşqarlı lüğətində təsvir olunan Orta Asiya 

qopuzunun eynidir. 

Qopuz hazırda qırğızların, altayların arasında yaşamaqdadır. 

Türk xalqlarından biri olan Qırğızlarda da qopuz aləti mövcuddur. Lakin onlar bu aləti 

“komuz” adlandırırlar.  

Əfsanəsi görə qədim ovçu Kambarom bu 3 hissəli aləti ilk musiqi aləti hesab etmişdir. Bu alət 

əksər hallarda oturaraq üfüqi vəziyyətdə ifa olunur, nadir hallarda aləti ayaq üstə ifa edərlər. 

Qazaxlarda qopuz alətinə “Kobız” aləti deyirlər. Ən qədim simli kamanlı alətdir və onun 

çanağı bütöv ağac parçasından hazırlanır. Qazax xalqının da təsəvvüründə, kobız aləti Dədə 

Qorqudun adı ilə bağlıdır və şamanların əsas atributu sayılır. 

Özbəklərdə də qopuz aləti mövcuddur və onlar kobuz adlandırırlar. 

Türk dövlətləri arasında məhz Türkmənistanda da qopuz aləti mövcuddur. Olar da bizim kimi 

qopuz adlandırırlar. Çox qədim alətdir, əsasən qadınlar arasında  ifa edilmişdir. Türkmən qadınların 



I Türkoloji Qurultayın 90 illiyinə həsr olunmuş beynəlxalq konfrans: 

 

TÜRKOLOJİ ELMİ-MƏDƏNİ HƏRƏKATDA ORTAQ DƏYƏRLƏR VƏ YENİ ÇAĞIRIŞLAR (I hissə) 



 

 

 



 

 

 



469

ənənəsi olan “ uzuklar-ın” qədim əfsanəsində qopuzun ifası, onun musiqi sədaları altında rəqs 

etməkləri və onun müşayiəti ilə “laylalar” söylənilməsi təsvir olunur. 

 

Lala İsmayılova 



Gobuz in different Turkic people 

Summary 


The komuz or qomuz Kyrgyz комuz, Azerb. Gopuz, Turkish Kopuz, is an ancient fretless 

string instrument used in Central Asian music, related to certain other Turkic string instruments and 

the lute. Qubuz is a village in Qaranqu Rural District, in the Central District of Hashtrud County, 

East Azerbaijan Province, Iran.  

Key words: gopuz, Dada Gorgud, music, Turkic people 

 

 



Haldun Ozbudun, doktorant 

Azerbaijan State University of Culture and Arts 

haldun.ozbudun@gmail.com 

 

TABRIZI INFLUENCE ON PAINTING IN OTTOMAN TURKEY 



 

Although the primary duty of the artists of the Kitabhaneh was to illuminate and illustrate 

religious, literary, and historical texts, their energies were not totally consumed by the production 

of manuscripts. They also executed single paintings and drawings that were free from the 

restrictions of the texts. These individual studies were so highly regarded that they were later 

incorporated into imperial albums. 

Compilation of the works of esteemed calligraphers and painters into albums was a special 

form of art; single sheets were organized in a predetermined sequence and pasted onto the pages 

alone or in groups; the margins were carefully designed and decorated to enhance the contents; and 

finally the folios were compiled and the volume was bound.  

The murakka or album, is a type of codex that brings together single-folio works of renowned 

contemporary and past calligraphers, artists, illuminators and paper cutters in a single volume. As 

distinct from illustrated manuscripts, the paintings, drawings, illuminations, or calligraphic 

examples in a murakka  are not necessarily connected to a specific text. In other words, while the 

intention of compiling a murakka-album is occasionally to protect and preserve, the main objective 

is to form a collection of works of fine art that are deemed "valuable." Apart from illuminators, 

painters and scribes, secondary level masters were also instrumental in meticulously pasting works 

one by one on the pages of a murakka,  for they skillfully joined the papers without a trace. 

Although their date and provenance varied, these single-folio works were placed on the same page 

with careful calculation, skill, and harmony. Some of the albums prepared for an important patron 

would contain a preface (mukaddima) that would identify the album compiler and the patron, and 

would sometimes include the biographies of Islamic manuscript artists. The murakka would then be 

bound in an equally well-made binding. While the earliest examples of such works point to the 

existence of a tradition that dates as far back as the fifteenth century, the spread of murakka 

production as a distinct branch of Islamic art of the book and the subsequent examples that 

epitomize this art form emerge towards the mid-sixteenth century.               

Numerous murakkas  prepared for rulers, princes, and other members : the ruling class have 

survived, particularly from the sixteenth century  Safavid period. From  the second  half of the same  

century onwards,   Uzbek and   Mughal   artists  just like Tabrizi masters also  assembled albums for 

the court elite.  

The earliest examples of select albums designed at Tabriz in the Safavid royal studio are dated 

to the mid-sixteenth century. Possibly prepared for Shah,  such examples includes a diverse 

collection: several drawings in the kalem-i siyahi technique, extraordinary illuminations attributed 


I Türkoloji Qurultayın 90 illiyinə həsr olunmuş beynəlxalq konfrans: 

 

TÜRKOLOJİ ELMİ-MƏDƏNİ HƏRƏKATDA ORTAQ DƏYƏRLƏR VƏ YENİ ÇAĞIRIŞLAR (I hissə) 



 

 

 



 

 

 



470

to the most famous illuminators of the period, the works of renowned Safavid calligraphers, and a 

paper-cut image.                                    

Designed with outstanding mastery, these albums were possibly created towards the end of 

the sixteenth century  to bring together unique works collected  in the palace treasury. The various 

calligraphic examples, the illuminations and the brush-work ink drawings all indicate that the album 

was prepared in the third quarter of the sixteenth century. It does not contain any works that can be 

ascribed to a later date.  

The well-known Murad III album includes drawings by Ottoman and Safavid artists executed 

in saz  style in the kalem-i siyahi  technique that can be dated to the second half of the sixteenth 

century as well as single-figures by Velijan and Riza. paintings by Ottoman and Safavid artists, full-

page [levha]  illuminations by illuminators, calligraphic works of fifteenth and sixteenth century 

Timurid, Turcoman, Safavid and Ottoman calligraphers, and a paper-cut garden similar to the 

previous album. The albums prepared at the Ottoman imperial studio are not limited to these two 

examples. 

The majority of kalem-i siyahi  illustrations in these albums are attributed to Shah Kulu (d. 

1556), who worked at the Ottoman imperial studio between 1520   and   1556.  Virtually  all  the 

works attributed to him are executed in the saz  style with kalem-i siyahi  technique. The Turkish 

word saz denotes a dense forest in which lions, dragons, monkeys, phoenixes, various birds, and all 

kinds of wild creatures live. The word originates from Far Eastern and Central Asian mythology. 

The first examples of the illustrations in this style were executed with black ink and brush by 

Ilkhanid, Jalayirid, Timurid and Turkman artists as of the fourteenth century.  

One of the most outstanding Tabrizi artists that contributed to Ottoman painting and 

decoration, Shah Kulu reinterpreted this style at the Ottoman Palace. The earliest information on 

Shah Kulu is encountered in a salary register of the court artists dated to 1526 (932 AH). Referred 

to as a painter in the register. Shah Kulu is listed in the foremost rank of the painter-illuminators. In 

the document Shah Kulu is recorded as an exile from Tabriz who came to Amasya and was later 

transferred to the imperial allocations in Istanbul. He was enrolled in the salary register in December 

1520 (Muharrem 927 AH).  In subsequent salary registers dated to the months of March-May 1545 

(Safar-Rabi I 952 AH), it appears that Shah Kulu was the head of the group of painter-illuminators 

of Anatolian origin as the creator of an innovative brush technique.    

Tabrizi painter Shah Kulu's contributions towards Turkish decorative arts were also 

recognized by Mustafa Ali of Gelibolu who wrote his Menakib-i Hunerveran (Artists' Exploits) on 

the calligraphers, illuminators and painters. Ali states that Shah Kulu arrived in Vilayet-i Rum 

(Anatolia) during the reign of Siileyman I. He adds that a private, independent studio was given to 

him at the Palace where the sultan would occasionally watch him work, and that he was appointed 

as the head of old and new masters. Noting that Shah Kulu was a pupil of Aga Mirak of Tabriz 

royal kitabkhaneh, he recognizes the former as the inventor of a new popular style that confirms the 

verse, "the art of a newcomer is lovelier than that of his predecessor." By wishing that his nature 

were just as beautiful as his art, Mustafa Ali clearly points to Shah Kulu's bad temper and mentions 

that he would be more famous than Behzad otherwise. 

Shah Kulu was also a famous poet, writing under the pen name Penahi. In his celebrated 

biographical work, Ashik Chelebi (d. 1571) provides us with an extraordinary medhiye (eulogizing 

poem) on Shah Kulu's artistic skills: "... He was the second Mani in painting. Perhaps Mani was his 

chartered slave. If he were to make seven kinds of illumination (nakish),  eight heavens would be 

jealous... If he were to paint spring flowers, spring would arrive in wintertime.  

Sources also reveal the date of Shah Kulu's death. A document pertaining to the rewards the 

sultan distributed for the bayram of 1556 (963 AH) announces his passing.  While information on 

Shah Kulu in various sources identifies him as a musavvir  (painter), his specific style of colored 

paintings is not known. The drawings he made in the saz style using the kalem-i siyahi technique, 

however, are well known. These works are marked by legendary animals such as dragons and 

phoenixes, lanceolate leaves on curved or sharp-angled branches, peony blossoms and flower 

bouquets, as well as forest fairies (peri) whose clothes are decorated with the skill and precision of a 


I Türkoloji Qurultayın 90 illiyinə həsr olunmuş beynəlxalq konfrans: 

 

TÜRKOLOJİ ELMİ-MƏDƏNİ HƏRƏKATDA ORTAQ DƏYƏRLƏR VƏ YENİ ÇAĞIRIŞLAR (I hissə) 



 

 

 



 

 

 



471

jeweler. Their perfection attests to Shah Kulu's praised mastery. According to another document, 

Shah Kulu presented a portrait of 

a fairy as a bayram gift to Sultan Suleyman. This is perhaps the fairy currently housed in the 

Freer Gallery in Washington D.C. Based on a strong imagination, these drawings collectively 

known as saz yolu,  constitute one of the fundamental styles of the Ottoman decorative arts for 

centuries. 

There is ample evidence of their appreciation of the Tabriz art of the book: for instance, as 

mentioned earlier, Shah Tahmasib's accession present of his Shah-namah to Sultan Salim II in 1568 

was much appreciated, and illustrated manuscripts were included in the royal presents sent to the 

Ottoman court by Shah Abbas I in 1619.  

The drawing belongs to a large group of dragons collect in the Istanbul albums, singular 

examples of which are pn ently in American and European museums. Two of these i fer clues in 

identifying the name of an artist. The first is a badly damaged drawing  that bears the seal of Shah - 

kulu and the notation: "This dragon is the work of master Shah - kulu". The sketch, in the  Bahram 

Mirza Album, made at Tabriz in 1544-45, has a preface written in 1544/1545 by Dost Muhammed, 

who might have been responsible for the notation. It appears to be the earliest datable drawing of 

Shah - kulu. Even though too faint to determine the artist's style, it nevertheless establishes a date 

for his dragon drawings. 

The name of Shah - kulu appears on one other drawing, that of a flying peri holding a long-

necked bottle and a stemmed cup, also removed from an imperial album. This example, now in the 

Freer Gallery of Art, is superbly detailed, its execution bcfiting the reputation of the master.'" 

Shah - kulu, recorded in the payroll register of 1526 as "Shah-kulu".  The document states that 

he was exiled from Tabriz, most likely around 1501 when Ismail took over in Iran. Shah - kulu, 

whose name means the "servant (or slave) of the Shah," was probably in the service of the 

Akkoyunlu sultan and left Tabriz when the Safavids defeated his patron. He first lived in Amasya 

and then moved to Istanbul, joining the nakkash - khane between December 1520 and January 

1521. He drew the highest salary in the society in 1526, was made serbollik in 1545, and is 

mentioned in a document dated 1555/1556 as having died before he could be given the bayram 

gifts from the sultan. Another document datable to 1545 states that he gave a representation of a 

peri on paper to the sultan. 

Mustafa Ali, in his biography of  the artists completed in 1586, wrote that Shah - kulu was 

trained in Tabriz by a master named Aga Mirak, an artist who later joined the Safavid court. 

According to Mustafa Ali, when Shah - kulu came to the court soon after Suleyman's accession, he 

was given an independent studio; the sultan used to watch him work there and frequently rewarded 

him with gifts. Mustafa Ali also insinuated that the artist was ill-mannered, had a nasty tempera-

ment, and frequently feuded with his colleagues. Shah - kulu, identified with drawings of dragons 

and peris, must have been the master who executed the Cleveland example, which shows the same 

refined technique as his work in the Freer Gallery in Washington. 

The  Istanbul album is filled with single paintings and drawings, many of which represent 

angels who either fly or sit in an undefined space, alth ough at times they are shown in a landscape 

or have carpets spread under them. The peris have pairs of swooping wings and frequently wear 

crowns or hats made of long feathery leaves, short-sleeved tunics over long sleeves and skirts, 

jeweled belts, and flowing ribbons tied to their torsos. They hold in their hands musical instruments, 

long-necked wine bottles and cups, bunches of flowers, or peacocks, offering the delights of 

paradise. 

A typical example, pasted below an illuminated panel with a verse of poetry, depicts the 

fantastic creature flying over a landscape while playing a lute. The landscape is rendered in full 

color and represents trees interspersed with clusters of flowers and bushes. The figure, executed in 

bold outlines, is delicately detailed with washes, touches of gold, and pink tints applied to select 

areas. She wears the outfit characteristic of the peris: the feathery hat surmounted by leaves and 

infinitesimally decorated double-tiered tunic over a long skirt. Spiral scrolls bearing blossoms 

embellish the neck of her undergarment, the cuffs of her tunic, and the long knotted ribbon tied to 


I Türkoloji Qurultayın 90 illiyinə həsr olunmuş beynəlxalq konfrans: 

 

TÜRKOLOJİ ELMİ-MƏDƏNİ HƏRƏKATDA ORTAQ DƏYƏRLƏR VƏ YENİ ÇAĞIRIŞLAR (I hissə) 



 

 

 



 

 

 



472

her chest; a larger version of the same scroll appears on the long sleeves and lower tier of her tunic; 

the cloud collar enclosing the shoulders of her tunic has a similar scroll with birds, and her skirt 

shows cranes flying amid cloud bands.  

Several single folio paintings and kalem-i siyahi drawings found in the Ottoman albums are 

signed by Velijan Tabrizi. Velijan was a student of the Safavid Tabrizi  court painter Siyavush. He 

traveled from Tabriz to Istanbul in the early 1580s and was later enrolled in the painters division of 

the organization of the court artists.  Documents indicate that he worked on the illustration of 

manuscripts at the royal studio between 1582 and 1588. In fact, Velijan is also mentioned among 

the artists who illustrated the second volume of the Hunername  and skilled in the kalem-i siyahi 

technique occasionally colored with diluted pink and gold, depicting standing or lying double or 

single male figures, saz compositions, peony blossoms, fairies, and animals. 

The extraordinary technical skill in this composition is reminiscent of the style of Velijan, a 

Tabrizi artist of the Safavid court.  His drawing follows Safavid prototypes but betrays Ottoman 

influence in the sharply pointed leaves that presage the saz style, an Ottoman adaptation of Chinese-

inspired foliage. 

  Sealed peri from an album, second half sixteenth century is attributed to Velijan (Istanbul, 

Topkapi Sarayi Miizesi. H. 2162, fol. 48b) 

The same album contains a slightly later drawing of another peri  bearing the inscription 

"kalem-i [pen of] Velijan." The posture of the figure, who sits in three-quarter ings are inscribed 

simply "Velijan," written in a different hand at a later lime."" One example, however, a study of ha-

layi blossoms and buds with the name hidden among the foliage, seems to bear an authentic 

signature. Even though it is difficult to determine how many of the drawings attributed to Velijan 

were actually by his hand, the artist appears to have been renowned for his drawings and recognized 

as a master of the saz style. 

Velijan, recorded in the payroll registers of 1596 and mentioned in the documents relating to 

the 1584/1585 volume of the Hunername as being one of its illustrators, was a student of Siyavush 

the Kurchi, a painter in the Safavid court. Velijan, who must have come to Istanbul in the 1570s, 

was the last practitioner of the saz style, which lost favor in the Ottoman court after 1600. 

           Occupation of the Safavid capital Tabriz by Sultan Salim in 1514, and subsequent 

incursions (in 1534,  1538 and 1547), resulted in the removal to Turkey of many royal treasures; 

these included fine albums and illustrated manuscripts, most of which are preserved in the Topkapi 

Palace to this day. Many artists were also taken by the Ottomans from Tabriz to Turkey, where they 

established the sixteenth-century Ottoman school of painting. Fortunately, we have well 

documented contemporary accounts of both the arts and the artists in Turkey. Among the painters 

we can mention Shah Mansur  and Velijan, a pupil of Siyavoush Beg, who worked in the studio of 

Sultan Murad III (d.1595) and seems to have tried to emulate Mawlana Wali Allah or - Velijan as is 

evident from album H. 2162 in the Topkapi, in which both artists' work can be found. 

LITTERATURE 

1. 


Atıl, E. Süleymanname. the Illustrated History Of Süleyman The Magnificent, New 

York , Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, 1986. 

2. 

Atıl, E. The Age of Suleyman the Magnificent. Washington,1984 



3. 

Froom, A., 2001, “Collecting Tastes: A Muraqqa` for Sultan Murād III” in EJOS, pp. 

1-14. 

4. 


M.S. Ipsiroglu and S. Eyiiboglu, Turkey, Ancient Miniatures, UNESCO, New York 

1961 (with anintroduction by Richard Ettinghausen). 


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