Sonuç yerine
Prof. Dr. Hilmi Ziya Ülken, bir yazısında Eski Yunan felsefesinin bir
―miras yedi‖ olduğunu ifade eder. Gerçekten de biz bugün çok daha iyi
fark etmekteyiz ki, hiçbir düşünce ve felsefe gökten zembille inmemektedir.
Geçmişten beslenmekte ve etkileşimlerle yol almaktadır.
Mesele, tarih olmuş varolanın öncelikle fark edilmesi ve kavranmasıdır.
İkinci adım ise, aktüel olan yaklaşımları dikkate alarak keşfedilenin inşâ
edilmesidir. Bu tavra bir isim bulmak gerekirse, bizim önerimiz keşfî-inşâ
kavramıdır. Keşfedilenin inşâsı, yapılanın mutlak olmadığını gösterir.
Geçmişin farklı tarzlarda okunabileceğine işaret eder. Bu okumaları
birbirini desteklemesi ve düzeltmesi ise felsefeleri oluşturacaktır.
Türk tefekkürü ve felsefesi Türkiye‘de ve dünyada yeni yeni keşfedilmeye
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başlanan bir dünyadır. Yapılması gereken büyük bir dinamizme sahip olan,
Türk düşünce tarihini önerdiğimiz bakış açısından keşfetmeye ve
keşfederken de inşâ etmeye devam etmektir. Bu, felsefenin eski Yunanla
başlayan bir aktivite olmadığını, her dönemin, her milletin az ya da çok
felsefî bir birikime sahip olduğunu bizlere gösterecektir.
Sözü Emekli Felsefeci Süleyman Hayri Bolay Hoca‘nın bir tespitiyle
bitirelim: ―Türk düşüncesinin tarihi ufku çok geniştir. Tarihi seyri
devletlere yaygınlığı itibariyle Batı düşünce hayatında daha geniş bir
tarihe, coğrafyaya sahiptir. Muhteva itibariyle de en az Batı düşünce hayatı
kadar zengindir.”Bizlere düşen bu zenginlikten gereğince nasipdâr olmak
için zihnimizi ve gönlümüzü açık tutmak ve gayretli olmaktır.
Mikheil Makharadze
NATIONAL PHILOSOPHY IN GEORGIA (IV-XX CENTURIES)
It is possible to single out conventionally four periods in national Georgian
philosophy: IV-XII centuries, XIII-XVIII centuries, XIX century and XX
century.
However, beginning of study of pure philosophical issues was preceded by
mythological thinking an example of which is a legend ―Amirani‖. Amirani
is a hero struggling to obtain heavenly fire and his endeavours are directed
towards welfare of the humanity. ―Amirani‖ reveals closeness to as well as
difference with the Prometheus myth and with an earlier poem ―Gilgamesh‖
(22, p. 45).
I
In IV century a philosophical center emerges in Georgia. This fact is
confirmed by two scholars of Eastern Roman Empire Libanius (314-394)
and Themistius (317-388) in their notes written in Greek. They discuss an
educational center, a school which according the existing data was situated
in Western Georgia – Kolkheti.
It is acknowledged in Georgian science that philosophy and rhetoric were
taught together with other subjects at this school (22, p.70-74; 29, p. 53).
It should be noted that Kolkheti school of rhetoric was the first educational-
training institution which prepared the basis for Greek-Georgian
philosophical relations.
Kolkheti school of rhetoric where priority was given to Neoplatonic
philosophy ceased its existence when, according to the edict of Emperor
Justinian, the last Neoplatonic school was closed in Athens in 529.
A famous historic figure Bakuri (IV c.) from East Georgia was associated
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with Kolkheti school of rhetoric. He, apparently, left East Georgia when
Christianity was established in the country. He as a pagan and an adherent
of Neoplatonism could not stay there anymore. It is known that Neoplatonic
Libanius had a rather positive attitude to Bakuri, praised him and approved
his love for logoses (22, p.74-76; 29, p. 65-68).
At the initial stage of Georgian philosophy Peter the Iberian‘s (411-491)
figure stands out. He was a son of King Varaz-Bakar; at the age of 12 he
was sent as a hostage to the court of the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II
in Constantinople. Here he received a fundamental education in theology
and philosophy, achieved a high position at the court of the Emperor. But in
spite of such successful career, Nabarnugios (the name given to him in
Constantinople) left the court and escaped to Palestine where took the
monastic vows and was named Peter.
Peter the Iberian as well achieved a great success in the sphere of spirit and
became episcope of Mayum. Peter who lived far from Georgia never lost
contacts with his motherland. His name became especially actual in XX
century when, on the basis of the research conducted, a Georgian scientist
Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969) (24) and a Belgian orientalist Ernest
Honigmann (1892-1954) (31) identified him as the author of the most
important works produced at the joint of V-VI centuries and known as the
Areopagitical works (22, p. 88-102).
Georgian reality (culture, social life) of this period is characterized by
opposition between ecclesiastic and secular world outlooks which first of
all was revealed in the attitude to the mundane. The position of the
ecclesiastic world outlook was negative, and that of the secular world
outlook – positive (29, p. 47).
From the viewpoint of ideological incompatibility, the opposition between
monophysite and diophysite positions should be stressed. At the beginning,
the monophysite position was firmly established in Georgia. After the
Council of Chalcedon (551), Georgia gradually took the side of the
diophysites that eventually resulted in breaking off relations with the church
of Armenia (605-609).
Choice of diophysite direction meant liberation of Georgia from the
ideological influence of Persia where strong monophysite centers
functioned. This fact without any doubt was a progressive step for the
country.
In general, in the first period of history of Georgian philosophy, Greek-
Georgian philosophic relations were important. The next stage of these
relations embraces IX-XI centuries and is associated with translation
activities.
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At this period translation work, essentially, was done in Georgian scientific
centers abroad (Iberian monasteries in Athens, Black Mount in Syria,
Palestine, etc.). Translations were done by Ioane, Ephtvime and Giorgi
Mtatsmidelis, Giorgi Mtsire, Grigol Oshkeli, Davit Tbeli and others. They
translated Cappadocian Fathers‘ works on philosophical issues. Creative
assimilation of Cappadocian Fathers‘ works is considered the Renaissance
of Cappadocians in the X-XI centuries Georgia (Acad. GuramTevzadze) (7,
p. 109-122).
One interesting fact should be stressed. Ephtvime Mtatsmideli, in main,
translated from Greek into Georgian. Though he, as well, translated from
Georgian into Greek. Some scientists put forward a rather convincing
opinion according to which the author of Greek ―Balavariani‖ is Ephtvime
Mtatsmideli (22, p. 255-259).
A bit later Greek-Georgian relations, from the view point of philosophical
contacts, moved up to a higher stage. In those works that were translated by
Ephrem Mtsire,Arsen Ikaltoeli and Ioane Petritsi (X-XI c.c.) philosophical
content is strong. They translated ―The Fountain of Knowledge‖ by John of
Damascus (Ephrem Mtsire, Arsen Ikaltoeli), Areopagitical works (Ephrem
Mtsire), works by Anastasios of Sinai, Theodore Abakura, John Italus and
others and ―Elements of Theology‖ by Proclus (Ioane Petritsi).
Translation of Areopagitical works by Ephrem Mtsire had an extremely
serious importance for Georgian philosophy and Georgian culture in
general. The philosophical ideas given in these works which, in fact, meant
transplantation of Neoplatonism into the Christian soil (Sh. Nutsubidze),
were of utmost significance and made profound impact on the thinking of
the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The Areopagitical doctrine played
the analogical role in relation to Georgian culture. It will suffice to name
Shota Rustaveli‘s ―The Knight in the Panther‘s Skin‖ where the author of
the Areopagitical theory – ―wise Divnos‖ is referred to regarding the
cardinal issue of the poem – absoluteness of the good and non-substantiality
of the evil.
An outstanding Georgian scholar of the middle ages Ioane Petritsi was
educated in Constantinople, at Academy of Mangan where his tutor was a
great Byzantine philosopher John Italus (1025-1082).
After returning to Georgia Petritsi continued his work at Gelati Academy
where he finished translating into Georgian of a work by a Neoplatonist
Proclus (412-485) ―Elements of Theology‖. The translation was
accompanied by vast comments which constitute his original work. Great
many original ideas are expressed in these comments (13). Petritsi deepened
and further developed Proclus‘s idea of the triad. Petritsi is rightfully
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considered as a Proclus‘s successor and adherent who developed his
philosophy.
Arsen Ikaltoeli who, like Petritsi, was educated in Constantinople translated
from Greek parts I and III of ―The Fountain of Knowledge‖ by John of
Damascus, ―Viae Dux‖ (Guide Along the Right Path) by Anastasios of
Sinai, ―For the First‖ by Michael Psellos and others. These translations are
united in the volume ―Dogmatikoni‖ (22, p. 374-388; 29, p. 268-292).
It, also, should be noted that part of scientists (Sh. Nutsubidze, Sh.
Khidasheli) consider Ephrem Mtsire and Ioane Petritsi as progressive
figures and Arsen Ikaltoeli as a bearer of reactionary ideology (Sh.
Nutsubidze) and a representative of conservative-dogmatic direction (Sh.
Khidasheli).
As early as in 1914 a famous Georgian historian Ivane Javakhishvili (1876-
1940) pointed to the existence of the Renaissance elements in Georgia. This
position was developed by Sh. Nutsubidze who eventually formed a theory
of Oriental Renaissance the kernel of which is the idea of Georgian
Renaissance (21; 23). A number of Georgian as well as foreign scientists
shared the idea of Renaissance in Georgia of the 11-12
th
centuries. An
outstanding Russian scientist Alexei Losev (1893-1988) was among them.
According to Sh. Nutsubidze the main world outlook sources of the
Renaissance in Georgia are the Areopagitic doctrine and Ioane Petritsi‘s
philosophy and the culmination is Shota Rustaveli‘s ―The Knight in the
Panther‘s Skin‖ (21; 22, p. 409-430; 23).
Almost all characteristic features of the Renaissance are given in ―The
Knight in the Panther‘s Skin‖: humanism, positive attitude to the real world,
monism of the good etc. And the most important is that the poem is full of
examples of mutual assistance on part of its characters, achieving of the
goal by means of such assistance, doing good, etc.
Georgian scientists (Sh. Nutsubidze, Sh. Khidasheli) convincingly proved
the existence of the Renaissance in Georgia of the 11-12
th
centuries. It was
just relying on their argumentation that A. Losev fully shared the theory of
Georgian Renaissance (9, p. 33-37).
Georgian philosophy of the first period is characterized by gradual
assimilation of theological and philosophical problems. From the
philosophical aspect it achieves its culmination in Ioane Petritsi‘s works.
This period of Georgian philosophy is distinguished for its relations with
cultures of different nations. In particular, close relations with Greek and
Armenian cultures stand out. Though if in respect to Greek culture we
witness theological and philosophical interrelations, in respect to Armenian
culture it is a purely practical-religious relation. In this context one fact is
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worth noting: a famous VI century Armenian philosopher David Anhaght
who was born in Alexandria, came to Armenia but because of the conflict
with his compatriots, left it and settled in Georgia where he died.
II
The second period of history of Georgian philosophy embraces XIII-XVIII
centuries. This period in history of Georgia, till the second half of XVII
century and the beginning of XVIII century is, in main, a period of decline.
It is natural that grave political situation of the country made a negative
impact on its culture and on philosophy in particular. The impressive rise of
philosophy (translation activities, original creative works, etc.) in XI-XII
centuries was replaced by a period of decay. Philosophical ideas were
mainly expressed in works on history, nature and in works of literature. The
only thing that still was present in the philosophical aspect was continuation
of the philosophical tradition of the previous centuries (22, p. 418-421).
This period of Georgian philosophy is not homogeneous. If in Georgia of
XIII-XIV centuries samples of philosophical thought were, mainly, given in
scientific treatises and historical works (Abuserisdze Tbeli, ―One-Hundred-
Year Chronicle‖ by an unknown author, …), the next period is an era of
decline which is followed by a comparative rise (second half of XVII c. –
XVIII c.).
Tradition of cultural inheritance was still alive in the XIII-XIV centuries
Georgia as it is unambiguously demonstrated by scientific heritage of
Abuserisdze Tbeli (approximately 1190-1250) and an unknown author of
XIII-XIV centuries – Zhamtaagmtsereli – chronicler.
Abuserisdze Tbeli is the author of an astronomic calander - ―Chroniconi‖, a
story of hagiographic-historical character and other works. In his works we
meet with world outlook ideas, in particular: according to the Greek
sources, the end of the world in the Greek world was expected in 1492.
Tbeli made corrections to the calculation and declared the year of 1396 as
the end of the world. It is not a scientific opinion, but the fact is that this
correction was made by Tbeli.
It is also worth attention that Tbeli attempted to establish a cult of the icon
Acheiropietos (not made by hands) in Georgia. He hoped to establish an
ideology of national unity through the cult of Acheiropietos but failed (8, p.
228-229).
―One-Hundred-Year Chronicle‖ by an unknown author is a work of
historical character which discusses state, political and cultural history of
Georgia during one century since enthroning in 1213 of Lasha-Giorgi
(1192-1223) including the first few years after accession to the throne of
Giorgi V Brtskinvale (1286-1346).
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This work deserves attention from historical and literary as well as
philosophical aspects.
From the aspect of philosophy, we, first of all should note that the author
gives us a definition of chronicle (history) which, according to him, means
looking for truth, acceptance of an unbiased position between good and
evil. It is nothing else but an attempt to comprehend history from a
philosophical aspect (Sh. Nutsubidze). It is also worth attention that he tried
to attach serious importance to subjective and objective factors in social and
political life of society.
The author of the chronicle thinks that moral purity of the rulers is of
decisive importance for the strength of the country and he insists that moral
corruption of the country population deserves punishment from God (8, p.
258-259).
Among the thinkers of this epoch works by a distinguished writer, diplomat
and public figure Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani (1658-1725) stand out. In
creative heritage of this versatile figure his ―Georgian Dictionary‖ in which
definitions of philosophical concepts are given is of special importance
from the view point of philosophy.
Considering Sulkhan-Saba‘s dictionary we can judge about his position
regarding subject of philosophy, ontological and logical ideas (8, p. 57-67;
15, p. 51).
Besides Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani‘s works, philosophical, ethical and
aesthetic ideas are given in creative heritage of King-poets: Teimuraz I,
Archil II and Vakhtang VI as well as poets Mamuka Baratashvili, Davit
Guramishvili and Besiki (8, p. 130-199).
Among the scientists whose works contain philosophical ideas, special
attention should be paid to Vakhushti Batonishvili (1696-1757) who is the
author of a brilliant work ―Description of the Kingdom of Georgia‖. It is a
historical multi-aspect work in which certain philosophical ideas are given
as well.
In the introduction to the work Vakhushti Batonishvili discusses creation of
the world by God, existence of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden,
expelling them from the Garden of Eden, sin of Cain, etc.
Vakhushti Batonishvili highly appreciated philosophers‘ works. He often
refers to Socrates, Cicero, John of Damascus and states that these thinkers
should be taken into consideration in evaluating chronicles (8, p. 260-261).
Anton I (1720-1788) who was an ecclesiastic figure, catholicos, philosopher
and scientist has a special place among the XVIII century scholars.
In 1752 Anton I wrote an original philosophical work ―Spekali‖ in which
philosophical ideas of scientists writing in Greek and Latin (Plato, Aristotle,
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Proclus, Albert the Great, Thomas of Aquinas etc.) are rendered. While
working to fulfill this task he received assistance on philosophical issues
from catholic missionaries who lived in Tbilisi (22, p. 472-475). We as well
meet with naturphilosophical ideas in his works.
Besides ―Spekai‖ Anton I wrote ―Georgian Grammar‖, ―Tskobilsitkvaoba‖
– a fragmentary history of Georgian philosophical and theological thought,
―Mzametkveleba‖ – a collection of ecclesiastic issues and philosophical
problems and ―Theology‖ in four volumes, etc.
Anton I organized a school where translators were trained and
representatives of this school translated works of various European authors
from Russian into Georgian.
In 1755 due to assistance of King Erekle II, Anton I established a
theological college in Tbilisi, and in 1782 – in Telavi. At these colleges
alongside with other subjects, philosophy, logic and rhetoric were taught. In
the colleges worked outstanding theologians: Phillipe Kaitmazashvili, Davit
Rectori, Gaioz Rectori, Dositheos Nekreseli and others.
Alexandre Amilakhvari (1750-1802) a son of a grand feudal lord of Kartli
was an important representative of the XVIII
century Georgian philosophy.
Because of opposition of his family to King Erekle II he had to live and
conduct his activities in Russia.
Al. Amilakhvari is the author of a social-political treatise ―The Sage of the
Orient‖. According to the ideas developed in the treatise, despotism and
autocracy should be replaced by the rule of law, legislation of the country
should be based on habits and traditions of the nation and its psychic
constitution should be considered as well. The author‘s ideas concerning
social issues were based on the progressive ideas already established in
Europe.
The treatise by Al. Amilakhvari actually showed the way for realizing
progressive ideas which were formed in European science and very soon
were reflected in Georgian social-political thinking (8, p. 221-226).
Zurab Shanshovani (XVIII c.) and Iese Chubinashvili (1780-1821) who
worked in this period and a few years later discussed logical problems in
their works.
The second period of Georgian philosophy and especially its last centuries
are important from the aspect of philosophical contacts which mainly
consisted in translation activities. These activities imply: Georgian-
Armenian relations, Georgian-Russian relations and Georgian-European
relations (works of European philosophers were translated from Russian)
(22, p. 446-472, 488-497). These translations influenced works by Anton I,
Ioane and Davit Bagrationi.
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III
On 12 of September 1801 by force of a decree of the emperor of Russia
Alexander I the Kingdom of Kartl-Kakheti (Eastern Georgia) was annexed
and declared one of the provinces of the Russian empire. Georgia had to
face a new reality which grew even graver when in 1811 autocephaly of the
centuries old Georgian orthodox church was abolished and Georgian church
was turned into just one of the exarchates.
In result of these acts the cultural-educational vector of Georgia completely
turned to Russia. Alongside with negative this fact had certain positive
aspects as well, in particular: on the hand, young people from Georgia went
to educational centers in Russia; on the other hand, due to Russia it became
possible to know better European culture and later it turned out to be rather
important.
Quite soon after annexation of the Kartl-Kakheti kingdom the King‘s
family was exiled to Petersburg, Russia; among the family members were
sons of the last King of Kartl-Kakheti Giorgi XII – famous scientists Davit
and Ioane Batonishvili.
In April, 1805, together with one of the sons of the King – Pharnavaz and
his family an ecclesiastic figure Ivane Khelashvili went to Russia. He was
an outstanding theologian and philosopher; after taking monastic vows he
was named Iona.
Iona Khelashvili (1778-1837) was the author of many works on theological
and religious issues. From the aspect of philosophy his work ―A Book of
Thirty-Four Questions‖ written in 1826 is the most important; scientific
edition of this book was printed in 1967.
Philosophical world outlook, as well as religious ideas are discussed in this
book by Iona Khelashvili (9, p. 27-47; 22, p. 497-498).
Davit Bagrationi (Batonisvili) (1767-1819) in main studied problems of
natural sciences, though in his ―Abridged Manual of Physics‖ he analyzed
philosophical problems of natural sciences (9, p. 47-71).
Ioane Bagrationi (Batonishvili) (1768-1830) is the author of a multi-aspect
work ―Kalmasoba‖ – discussio of scientific knowledge in the XVIII-XIX c.
c. Georgia in which alongside with economic, cultural and political issues
philosophical problems are discussed as well (9, p. 71-57; 22, p. 497-520).
Among those historic figures who were born in Georgia and received
education in Russia was Iagor (Giorgi) Chilashvili (1790-1838). He was the
first among Georgians in Russia who got a fundamental Russian-European
education. He was a very authoritative figure in Georgia. In case of a
successful end of the 1832 conspiracy he was considered a minister of
education and internal affairs (9, p. 360).
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Iagor Chilashvili‘s progressive philosophical ideas which were formed on
the basis of the French Enlighteners‘ world outlook are rendered in his
work ―An Outline of Natural Law‖ (28).
Solomon Dodashvili (1805-1836) is an exceptional figure of XIX century,
especially of the first thirty years. His ―Logic‖ (11) for 50 years was
accepted as a manual in colleges of the Russian Empire. He is also the
author of ―Logical Methodology‖, ―Rhetoric‖ and ―Georgian Grammar‖.
Solomon Dodashvili was well-read in German classical philosophy and
used ideas of its representatives. He was planning to prepare an extensive
course of philosophy. Logic was the first part of it (22, p. 539-554).
Solomon Dodashvili never fulfilled his design since he as the chief
ideologist of the 1832 conspiracy against the Russian Empire was arrested
and severely punished – he and his family were exiled to Viatka where he
died in 1836.
Serious philosophical and ethical ideas are given in works by a prominent
ecclesiastic figure and scientist, episcope of Imereti Gabriel (Gerasime)
Kikodze (1825-1896). He had graduated from Petersburg Theological
Academy. His work ―Elements of Experimental Psychology‖ was published
in Petersburg in 1860 (16). Nikolai Dobroliubov published a special review
on the work. Gabriel Kikodze‘s sermons were very popular, in 1885 they
were published in two volumes and in a few years English (1891) and
Russian (1893) language editions of these sermons were published.
Ivane Tarkhnishvili (1846-1908) was widely acknowledged in Russia and
Europe. At the age of 14 he left Tbilisi for Petersburg. In 1896 he graduated
from Petersburg Medico-Surgical Academy. After defending his doctoral
thesis, he came to Tbilisi and gave a series of public lectures on ―The Role
of the Nervous System in Animal Movement‖. Ivane Tarkhnishvili as a
physiologist was well-known in Europe. In Europe he worked with
outstanding physiologists of the world (Goltz, Charkot, Bernard, etc.). He,
as well, was on close terms with a famous Russian physiologist Ivan
Sechenov.
Philosophical ideas can be found in almost all his works on natural
sciences. He thinks that the essence of life cannot be explained either from
materialistic or idealistic positions since they both belong to the sphere of
speculation. It is impossible to solve the problem of life without
experiments. He criticized vitalism and neo-vitalism. Attempts to discuss,
analyze and evaluate different definitions of the concept of life
(Democritus, Aristotle, Epicure, Kant, etc.) are given in his works.
Tarkhnishvili as well discussed problems of cognition and truth,
peculiarities of psychic and physiological processes. He thought that, in
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principle, it was possible to objectivize all sensations, etc. (9, p. 252-281).
World outlook and philosophical ideas, sociological and socio-political
conceptions are given not only in works of philosophical, psychological and
naturphilosophical character, but also in Georgian literature and works by
representatives of social-political movement of the XIX century Georgia.
Besides Ivane Tarkhnishvili‘s works, theoretical philosophy is presented in
works by Giorgi Tsreteli and Anton Purtseladze (9, p. 220-252).
World outlook issues are discussed in Ilia Chavchavadze‘s and Iakob
Gogebashvili‘s works (9, p. 178-219).
Philosophical ideas are expressed in works of Georgian Romantics
(Alexandre Chavchavadze, Grigol Orbeliani, Nikoloz Baratashvili) (9, p.
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